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American History Lecture 1 The Causes of the American Revolution (1763-1776) KEY THEMES: What were the causes of the revolution? Was the revolution justified? THE STATUS QUO IN 1763 Political and Economic: Britain's possessions in North America were divided into around 30 separate colonies. This included: The famous 13 colonies that eventually became the first 13 states To the North: Nova Scotia, Quebec, Newfoundland, and the lands assigned to the Hudson's Bay Company. To the South: Britain's Caribbean colonies: Jamaica, the Bahamas, Barbados, Antigua, etc. Also, on the mainland, the colony of Florida. Americans often forget that their colonies were not the most important ones. The islands of the West Indies were a far greater source of wealth. In 1750-1760, Jamaica alone produced more trade volume as all of New England put together, and about the same as New York and Pennsylvania.1 MAP "1.1" See Map See Map (Opens in new window) Comment regarding the map: Notice how the western boundaries of the Colonies are left open on this map. This is because these boundaries were notoriously unclear in the original royal charters by which the colonies were created. Here's what Daniel Boorstin has to say about this: In the colonial period, at least a half-dozen royal grants of American lands---by James I, Charles I, Charles II and George II---had avoided geographical detail. They simply specified that granted land (between designated points on the coast, or between certain degrees of latitude) should run (in the language of James I's grant to Virginia, 1609) "from Sea to Sea." "Throughout the mayne lands there," Charles I's grant (1629) to the Massachusetts Bay Company read, "from the Atlantick and Westerne Sea and Ociaon on the East Parte to the South Sea on the West Parte." Of course, nobody then knew even approximately how far west was the Pacific Ocean.2 With the exception of the vast empty lands draining into Hudson's Bay, which had no permanent White population and was administered by a private company, each colony had a governor appointed by London. The more advanced colonies had a political system resembling that of the United Kingdom: a legislature that proposed all laws (parallelling Parliament) and a governor who had to sign all Acts passed by the legislature before they could become laws. The governor also had control of the day-to-day actions of government. The legislature was elected, the governor was appointed. The voter base was narrow. It varied from colony to colony, but in general it only included people who met all the following qualifications: male, over 21 years of age, free (not slave), European (in practice, this excluded all Indians, but settlers from France, Germany, or Holland), and the owner of at least a small amount of real estate. Thus, the colonies were largely democratic (indeed, they were perhaps the most democratic places on Earth, aside from some Swiss cantons), but they were very undemocratic by today's standards. Military: Britain had just won the Seven Years' War with France and Spain (known in America as the "French and Indian War", because in America it had been waged against the French and their Indian allies). The war was one of a series of nearly continuous wars waged between Britain and France, with Spain and the Netherlands as secondary actors for the control of Europe and of world commerce between 1686 and 1815. (Prussia, Russia, Austria and some minor powers acted on the European military stage during these wars, but did not enter the battles in the colonies) During this period, France and Britain were at war for 43 of 129 years. 1. War of the League of Augsburg (1686-1697: England and Dutch vs. France, ends with Treaty of Ryswick) 2. War of the Spanish Succession (1701-1713: England, Dutch, Austrians and Holy Roman Empire vs. French and Spanish, ends with Treaty of Utrecht) 3. War of the Quadruple Alliance (1718-1720: Britain, France, Austria and Netherlands vs. Spain) 4. War of Jenkin's Ear (1739-1740: Britain vs. France and Spain. No treaty ends this war, which becomes part of the broader War of the Austrian Succession) 5. War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748: Britain, Austria and Netherlands vs. France, Spain, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony, ends with Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle). This war was known in the American colonies as King George's War. 6. Seven Year's War / French and Indian War (1756-1763: Britain, Prussia vs. France, Spain, Russia, Austria and Bavaria. Just to make things more confusing, not all the combatants on either side were at war with all the combatants on the other side. Ends with the Treaty of Paris). 7. War of Independence (1775-1781: Britain vs. United States, France, Spain, Netherlands, ends with Treaties of Versailles---which ends the British war with France and Spain---and the Treaty of Paris, in which Britain recognizes the independence of the USA). 8. Wars of the First and Second Coalition (1793-1802: Britain, along with two successive coalitions of anti-French forces, fight France. Peace between Britain and France finally occurs by the Treaty of Amiens). 9. War of the Third Coalition and other later Napoleonic wars (1805-1815) Britain, sometimes alone and sometimes with allies, remained at war until Napoleon was defeated and sent into exile on St. Helena. As a result of the Treaty of Paris, which ended this war, Britain's military power and political prestige reached its pinnacle for the century (a level that would not be matched again until the "Pax Britannica" of the nineteenth century commenced in 1815). MAP 1.2: MAP OF AMERICA, 1713 See Map (Opens in new window) MAP 1.3: MAP OF AMERICA, 1763 See Map (Opens in new window) Key features of the Treaty of Paris: 1. All of Canada, except the islands of St-Pierre et Miquelon were ceded to Britain (these islands retained by France in order to retain a base for fishing in the Gulf of St. Lawrence): 2. All French land east of the Mississippi (except New Orleans) ceded to Britain; 3. In return, Britain gives back the islands of Guadeloupe and Martinique in the Caribbean to France; 4. Britain wins Florida from Spain, and in return hands over Cuba, which had been won in battle. 5. Britain retains all former French territory in India except two small trading posts, and becomes the dominant power on the subcontinent. A further territorial change took place, which pushed France entirely off the map of North America: In the separate, secret Treaty of San Ildefonso (signed in 1762), France awarded all her lands west of the Mississippi to Spain as a reward for having entered the war against Britain. THE CAUSES OF THE REVOLUTION The fundamental conflict: Parliament regarded the Empire as a commercial proposition, and expected it to pay for itself. This meant that all parts of the Empire had to contribute revenue to the costs of running the Empire, and also to obey certain basic rules that applied to everybody. The colonists felt that it was wrong for Parliament to impose laws and particularly taxes on them, since they were not represented in Parliament. No mechanism could be invented at the time to allow them to be represented and Parliament wasn't willing to allow them to enjoy the benefits of participation in the Empire without bearing some of the costs, so compromise was impossible. Here's how John Bartlet Brebner sums up the conflict: For eleven years, one British government after another imposed one set of controls after another on the American colonies, only to withdraw or alter them in the face of increasingly stubborn and united resistance. Yet since the King and his satellites could never bring themselves to the point of admitting that colonies could be allowed to govern themselves, the whole complicated, contradictory process could have only one outcome---the flat assertion of British sovereignty, an equally blunt colonial denial of it except as concerned external relations, and appeals to force on both sides.3 Ironically, it was the Seven Years' War itself that led to the outbreak of revolution about a decade later. Five links between the Seven Years' War and the Revolution: 1. One of the key factors keeping the colonists loyal to Britain had been their fear of a French invasion from Canada, and the realization that it was Britain's military power which protected them from this danger. 2. During the war, New England and New York merchants had continued to trade with the French West Indies, thereby making it more costly (in both lives and treasure) for Britain to conquer these islands. The degree to which this trade was treasonous, in the modern sense, is debatable---prior to Napoleon's day, "total war" in which whole peoples (as opposed to regimes) were regarded as enemies, was a concept that had not yet fully developed. Thus, citizens of Britain sometimes travelled in France during times of war, and French naval vessels were even permitted to travel for peaceful purposes in British waters off Australia as late as 1800, when France and Britain were at war.4 Whatever the case, this strengthened domestic opinion in Britain in favour of tighter controls over colonial commerce, and these controls would soon become a source of great contention. 3. The war had been extraordinarily expensive, and heavy taxes were now needed to pay off the œ130 million in debt that had been incurred to pay for the war (and the previous war, which had also been waged largely on account of the colonies). Taxpayers in England typically had to pay 25 shillings per annum in taxes, whereas the typical colonial only paid 2% as much. Britain's attempts to force the American colonies to share the cost of paying off war debts would be the most important factor in causing the rebellion. Typical of the sentiments expressed by the British are these words, from Adam Smith, the greatest philosopher of the day and the father of modern economics. In his book, The Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, he wrote, The [Seven Years' War], which was undertaken altogether on account of the colonies, cost Great Britain, it has been observed, upwards of ninety millions. The [War of the Spanish Succession] was principally undertaken on that account, in which . . . Great Britain spent upwards of forty millions, a great part of which ought justly to be charged to the colonies. In those two wars the colonies cost Great Britain much more than double the sum which the national debt amounted to before the commencement of the first of them. Had it not been for those wars that debt might, and probably would by this time, have been completely paid . . . .5 4. In addition to war debts, 10,000 British soldiers would be required on an ongoing basis to garrison the American colonies (including the ones that eventually stayed loyal, like the sugar islands of the Caribbean) at a cost of œ300,000 a year. This was needed partly in order to defend against the Spanish and French, but mostly to deal with the Indian threat. In 1763-66, the charismatic chief, Pontiac, had created a grand confederacy of Indian tribes who had gone to war with the British and Americans, launching raids along 1,000 miles of frontier stretching from Lake Ontario to Virginia, and destroying every frontier fort other than Fort Detroit and Fort Pittsburgh. Overall, the annual cost of defending and administering the colonies had gone up by a factor of five, compared to the prewar cost.6 The British felt that the Americans should help pay for this too, particularly as only four of the colonies (Virginia, New York, New Jersey and Connecticut) contributed to the cost of Pontiac's war. Specifically, Lord Grenville (the creator of the Sugar Act) felt that the colonies should pay at least half of the cost of garrisoning North America. This added to the taxation pressures that led to rebellion. 5. In an effort to control the West and to satisfy its Indian allies, a Royal Proclamation was made in 1763, reserving all lands west of the crest of the Allegheny Mountains for the Indians. This was seen by the British as a way of preventing another Indian War (although it arrived too late to stop Pontiac's war). MAP 1.4: MAP OF PROCLAMATION OF 1763 See Map (Opens in new window) The Proclamation was a source of disaffection for a variety of reasons: a) Many prominent colonists were involved in land speculation, and the Proclamation deprived them of potential wealth. b) Some settlers had already crossed the mountains and were living in the new forbidden zone. c) There was a great deal of fear of Indian attack, which was worsened after Pontiac's war in 1763-1766. Here's what the Declaration of Independence says, in explaining one of the reasons for breaking away from Britain: "[The king] has endeavoured to bring upon the inhabitants of our frontiers, the merciless Indian savages, whose known rule of warfare is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes, and conditions." d) It was a first indication that Parliament was willing to usurp the constitutions of the various colonies (the founding Royal Charter of each colony served as the basic document for their semi-written constitutions). The idea that Parliament was overthrowing the constitution and therefore had to be resisted, would become the basic ideological tenet of the revolution. The immediate causes of the revolution were a series of laws enacted by Parliament. All imposed some form of burden upon the colonies, or else left the colonists feeling less secure than they had previously been. Each Act caused a negative reaction in the colonies, which came to be characterized by the slogan, "No taxation without representation." Parliament responded by noting that the interests of the colonists were "virtually" represented by the sitting MPs, who had been elected by Englishmen with interests similar to those of the colonists. It was observed, for example, that many places in England itself (eg. the cities of Birmingham and Manchester) had no direct representation in the Commons. Naturally, this suggestion won over few converts in the colonies. Sometimes Britain backed down when colonial pressure revealed a law to be unenforceable, and sometimes it responded by toughening its stance. This seesawing gave mixed signals to the colonists, and heightened the sense of frustration with Parliament. This process ends only with the final outbreak of war in 1775. 1. The Royal Proclamation of 1763. Discussed above. 2. The Revenue Act of 1764 (known as the "Sugar Act"). This law was intended by Prime Minister Grenville to provide the œ150,000 of revenue that he felt should be its share of its costs of defence. The law actually lowered the duty on foreign molasses brought to America by half as compared to the old Molasses Act of 1733, but it raised the taxes on refined sugar, textiles, wine, and coffee, and---most importantly, enforcement was stepped up so that the tax would actually be collected for the first time. As Brebner explains, The trouble was that many of the North American colonists had for two generations blandly ignored British regulations whenever they seriously interfered with their profitable pursuits. British customs appointees, conceding the situation, drew good salaries at home and did not greatly worry about the activities of their deputies in America . . . The Molasses Act of 1733 was a beautiful monument of mercantilist orthodoxy on the British statute books, but hundreds of thousands of gallons of Rhode Island rum were distilled from French molasses as if [the law] had never existed.7 Therefore, the enforcement of even a mild excise tax on sugar and molasses would have had the effect of putting many New Englanders out of business. 3. The Currency Act of 1764. Planters in the colonies had tended to be very heavy debtors, while merchants in London were normally their creditors. This was particularly true of the tobacco planters of Virginia and Maryland. Colonial assemblies were therefore dominated by representatives who passed laws inflating the currency, as a means of unilaterally reducing the cost of the debts owed by their constituents. As far back as 1751, Parliament had forbidden this practice for the New England colonies. In 1764, this prohibition was extended to all the colonies. 4. The Stamp Act of 1765 This law was expected to raise œ60,000 in the colonies. Revenue would be raised by means of a requirement that commercial documents and licences could not be purchased or sold without first aquiring a stamp, affixed by a government agent. A fee, ranging from 1/2 penny to œ10, would be charged for affixing the stamp. Items that would be affected included liquor licences, licences of other sorts, newspapers, publications, and even playing cards and dice. This law was perhaps the most stupid way of raising revenue imaginable, since it turned key opinion leaders, like newspaper publishers, lawyers, and innkeepers against the British. The amount of revenue it had been expected to raise was comparatively small; in practice, it raised no revenue at all. The famous tar-and-featherings that one hears of, connected with the Revolution, start with this Act, and are most often inflicted on individuals who have made the mistake of seeking employment as revenue agents collecting stamp duty. 5. The Quartering Act of 1765 This law allowed for the government to demand that private houses be used---at the expense of the unlucky house-owner or lessee---to quarter soldiers whenever the space was needed. This law amounts to a selective tax on unlucky or poorly-connected individuals, and was found so offensive by the Americans that a provision banning this practice would eventually be included in the Bill of Rights. When the New York legislature refused to enforce this Act, it was suspended by the King. 6. A series of laws passed by Lord Townshend in 1767 and known collectively as The Townshend Acts. These created new duties on goods not previously covered, such as tea, white lead, and paper. More significantly, they created a Board of Customs Commissioners to be based in Boston, with the power to enforce the laws. 7. The Tea Act of 1773 Parliament tried to revive the East India Company, which was near bankruptcy, by giving it a customs tax exemption on all its overstocks of tea. This meant that tea could now be imported into the colonies at a lower cost than ever before. This might have been seen as positive at an earlier time, but now it was seen as a means by which the merchant / smugglers who were leading the resistance to Britain might be financially destroyed by new imports of tea below the cost of their existing stocks. This first round of laws in the 1760s touched off the first set of colonial reactions. This took the form of informal measures and mob action. 1. Revenuers were often tarred and feathered, and then run out of town on a rail. 2. Smuggling continued as it had before. When attempts were made to stop smuggling, acts of sabotage took place (eg. the burning of the revenue cutter Gaspee in Rhode Island in 1772, which had been beached while chasing smugglers) 3. Riots took place. The most famous of these were the riots of March 3, 1770 in Boston, when sixty youths taunted and threw snowballs at British troops, who (without orders to do so) fired into the crowd, killing five of their assailants. A protracted trial followed, in which all of the soldiers were aquitted. However, the event came to be known as the "Boston Massacre," and was regarded incorrectly as an example of terrifying British oppression and a taste of things to come under British tyranny. 4. The most important reaction was the agreement of colonial merchants to boycott all foreign goods as a way of depriving the British of their revenue. This boycott was enforced by vigilante tactics, including the harassment of individual merchants who violated it and continued to trade as before. Starting in 1772 with Samuel Adams in Boston and gradually spreading across the colonies, a series of "committees of correspondence" began to keep track of this sort of organized law-breaking. 5. The reaction to the Tea Act was for the merchants to first try to barricade the docks and then, on December 16, 1773, to board British ships in Boston harbour---disguised as Indians---and throw the tea overboard. This incident came to be called the "Boston Tea Party," and (although it was not approved by moderates like George Washington), it was the most important colonist action of all, for it served as the inspiration for the British reaction which followed. In early 1774, a second round of British laws were set in place in reaction to the actions of the colonists. Collectively, these were known as the Coercive Acts or the Intolerable Acts (depending on your opinion of them): 1. The Port of Boston was closed until such time as the East India Company was reimbursed for its losses in the Tea Party. 2. British officials, indicted in Massachusetts courts for offenses committed while enforcing revenue laws, were to be tried either in another colony or in England, the Massachusetts courts now being seen to be partial. 3. Town meetings were forbidden unless authorized by the governor, and the Massachusetts constitution was altered unilaterally, so that the upper house would be appointed by the governor. 4. A new, tougher Quartering Act was passed. And there was also another Act which, while not fully part of this package, was associated with it in the minds of the colonists: 5. The Quebec Act. This law created a constitution for the newest British colony, which was seen as entrenching anti-Liberal, Catholic institutions for eventual transfer to older colonies. As well, its frontiers were greatly extended, into much of the territory set aside for the Indians in 1763 (all lands north of the Ohio River and east of the Mississippi River). It now appeared that Britain was planning to revive the old French-and-Indian menace to control the colonies. This round of laws produced a further reaction from the colonists, who by now were quite well organized. A call went out from the Massachusetts assembly for a "Continental Congress" to meet in Philadelphia in September 1774. Most of the mainland colonies (Nova Scotia, Quebec and Georgia were the exceptions) sent delegates. The Congress debated constructive means of reconciliation, such as a new level of government, run jointly from London and all the colonial capitals, but mostly it developed mechanisms of non-violent rebellion. 1. It was agreed to ignore and flout the Coercive Acts. 2. A "Continental Association" would be set up to coordinate the previously random and sporadic boycotts of British goods. 3. Merchants volunteered (!) to refuse to pay debts to creditors in England. 4. Militias were encouraged, and began to drill in preparation for the next British move. 5. It was agreed to call a Second Continental Congress, which would resume meeting in May 1775. Britain now responded with two proposals that were contradictory: 1. Nord North's suggestion that any American colony willing to pay for the cost of its own defence and internal government would be immune from Parliamentary taxation. This amounted to giving up on the hope of recovering the costs of the Seven Years' War, and just focussing on eliminating the ongoing costs of Empire. 2. The Restraining Act, which cut off New England's commerce with any part of the world other than the Empire, and terminated its access to the cod fisheries of Newfoundland. By this time, both sides were now armed. War was accidentally started on April 19, 1775, when British troops had attempted to march twenty miles from Boston to Concord, in order to seize a rebel ammunition dump. They were harassed along the way by American guerrilla militiamen, known as "Minute Men" because they could be ready to rush out fully armed in a minute. The British lost 73 men, plus 200 wounded in this series of skirmishes, and the Americans lost 49 plus 39 wounded. In June there was a battle at Bunker Hill in Boston, at which the Americans lost 400 and the British lost 1,000. Fort Ticonderoga, in upstate New York, was seized in a guerrilla action by Ethan Allen in early 1775. The Second Continental Congress agreed, on June 14, to begin raising a regular army. George Washington was assigned the task of being its Commander-in-Chief, and by early 1776 he had begun a siege of Boston, which the British now firmly controlled. Meanwhile, in September-December 1775, a two-prong invasion of Quebec was begun by the Americans, who successfully captured Montreal and besieged Quebec City. This siege failed, but it did eliminate the possibility of a quick British strike from north upon New England. A War, but no Demand for Independence. What is most striking about all of this is that a full-scale war was already underway, yet independence would not be declared until July 1776. Wouldn't it have made more sense to declare that the United States was an independent country first, and then to start fighting only when and if this independence was refused by Britain? In the twentieth century, this has been the standard pattern of behaviour for colonial societies breaking away from an empire. To assume that this is the logical pattern of behaviour is to assume that the Americans would have believed that independence was preferable to reforming the Empire. It was not. For one thing, it was nearly impossible to survive outside of the trade walls imposed by the various empires of the day (Britain, France, Spain and a few lesser empires). Each one tried to eliminate as much trade as possible outside its own dominions, and to be utterly self-sufficient. America was not yet large and powerful enough to be a self-sufficient empire of its own, and so it needed to be part of one of the empires, of which the British was by far the biggest and the best. So independence was a course to be considered only when all else had failed. What the Americans seem to have wanted was independence in all internal affairs, combined with partnership in a trading and military alliance organized out of London. This structure would eventually be adopted for the so-called "second British empire" starting with the granting of "responsible government" in Canada in 1841, and it would last until the beginning of WW II. But in the 1700s, it was too radical, and Parliament never seriously considered it. This change in attitude can be illustrated by the following contrast: Between 1691 and 1775, 469 of the 8,563 laws passed by colonial assemblies in the 13 colonies were struck down (about 5 1/2 percent).8 Most of these were disallowed because they conflicted with Britain's mercantilist goals. In 1866, London would pass a law, the Colonial Laws Validity Act, which stated clear and impartial conditions for the disallowance of colonial laws. Laws could only be struck down, from this date forward, if they were repugnant to the domestic laws of England. But of course by this time, America had been independent for nearly a century. -------------------------------------------------------------------------- Related Readings: Johnson, Paul. A History of the American People. London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1997, pp. 101-132. Aaron, Daniel, Richard Hofstadter, and William Miller, The United States: History of a Republic. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1957. (Chapter Five: "The American Revolution," pp. 86-102.) A solid, factual account of the period, and a good supplement to Johnson's livelier but more opinionated version. Adams, John. "Discourse on Canon and Feudal Law," in Bernard Brown (ed.), Great American Political Thinkers, volume I. New York: Avon Books, 1983, pp. 156-166. Adams presents the argument that the Stamp Act is unconstitutional. This represents an excellent example of thinking from the time of the Stamp Act Congress (first published 1765), and is also a good example of the American conception of what was meant by "the constitution". Brooks, David (ed.), From Magna Carta to the Constitution: Documents in the Struggle for Liberty. San Francisco: Fox and Wilkes, 1993. (The following selections only: "Declarations of the Stamp Act Congress," pp. 47-49; "Declaration and Resolves of the First Continental Congress," pp. 50-56.) Some of the more important resolutions of the central revolutionary bodies, which nicely show how radicalism was growing. John Dickinson, "Letters from a Farmer," in Bernard Brown (ed.), Great American Political Thinkers, volume I. New York: Avon Books, 1983, pp. 80-90. Dickinson, writing as "A Farmer", was a voice of moderation among those who protested the taxes being imposed by Parliament. Henry, Patrick. Speech to the Virginia convention, March 23, 1775, in Richard Crosscup (ed.), A Treasury of the World's Great Speeches. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1993, pp. 234-237. This is probably the greatest and most typical of the many thousands of speeches made in colonial assemblies during the period that the colonies and Parliament were moving closer to war; it is where Henry makes his famous pronouncement, "Give me liberty or give me death!". Jefferson, Thomas. "A Summary View of the Rights of British America"; "The Declaration of Independence", in Bernard Brown (ed.), Great American Political Thinkers, volume I. New York: Avon Books, 1983, pp. 293-306. The second of these documents properly belongs to the next lecture. However, read together they provide a neat contrast between the mindset of the early revolutionary period and that of the later, more radical period. Both are lists of grievances. Leonard, Daniel. Letters from "Massassuchusttensis" in Bernard Brown (ed.), Great American Political Thinkers, volume I. New York: Avon Books, 1983, pp. 97-106. Leonard was one of the more intelligent defenders of the actions of Parliament as being within the scope of the constitution. His rhetorical debate with John Adams, carried out in the Boston newspapers, provides insight into the loyalist political philosophy. Otis, James. "The Rights of the British Colonies," in Bernard Brown (ed.), Great American Political Thinkers, volume I. New York: Avon Books, 1983, pp. 75-80. Otis' writing represents one of the very earliest public challenges to the idea of absolute Parliamentary sovereignty. The challenge had existed previously in an inchoate form, but this was the first time that it had been presented in a coherent manner. Paine, Thomas. Common Sense. Harmondsworth, England: Penguin, 1986. This was the pamphlet that lifted the scales from the eyes of so many Americans, and made them determine to formally break free from the empire. Pitt, William (the Elder). Speech in the House of Lords, January 20, 1775, in Richard Crosscup (ed.), A Treasury of the World's Great Speeches. New York: Barnes and Noble, 1993, pp. 365-372. Pitt was a former prime minister, who expressed views typical of those Englishmen---and there were many---who felt sympathy for the American cause and disapproved of Tory harshness towards the colonists. Wilson, James. "On the Authority of Parliament," in Bernard Brown (ed.), Great American Political Thinkers, volume I. New York: Avon Books, 1983, pp. 90-96. A good example of the pre-Paine distinction between loyalty to the king and to the authority of Parliament. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- Lecture References: 1. See John Bartlett Brebner, North Atlantic Triangle: The Interplay of Canada, the United States and Great Britain. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958, p. 40. 2. Daniel Boorstin, The Americans. New York: Vintage, 1965, p. 257. 3. John Bartlett Brebner, North Atlantic Triangle: The Interplay of Canada, the United States and Great Britain. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958, p. 46. 4. "Although Britain and France were at war when Commodore Baudin's ships had sailed from Havre in October 1800, the British Admiralty had given the Frenchmen a passport of immunity because their main aim was scientific discovery." (Geoffrey Blainey, The Tyranny of Distance. Melbourne: Sun Books, 1966, p. 76.) The ships did not arrive in Sydney until mid-180, around the time that news arrived of a peace between Britain and France. 5. Adam Smith, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1976, p. 485. 6. John Bartlett Brebner, North Atlantic Triangle: The Interplay of Canada, the United States and Great Britain. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958, p. 41. 7. John Bartlett Brebner, North Atlantic Triangle: The Interplay of Canada, the United States and Great Britain. New York: Columbia University Press, 1958, p. 41. 8. Hofstadter, et al, The United States: The History of a Republic, p. 88. --------------------------------------------------------------------------- |
