by Tony Dekker (Version 1.6, July 2003). Dedicated to Virgil, Statius, Matilda, and Beatrice, for their inspiration.
Copyright © 2003 by Anthony Dekker. Permission is given to distribute this review freely for non-profit use, provided that it is not altered and that this copyright notice remains intact. See also http://members.ozemail.com.au/~dekker/essays
English Scripture taken from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION ®. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan Publishing House. See http://www.gospelcom.net/ibs/niv/
Latin Scripture taken from the Vulgate, as used in the Roman Breviary. See http://www.breviary.net
Latin hymns are taken from the old Breviary. See the “Treasury of Latin Prayers” at http://home.earthlink.net/~thesaurus
English quotations are from the translation of the Purgatorio by Dorothy Sayers © 1955 (available from Penguin Classics) and from her essay “The Other Six Deadly Sins” (available in the collection “Creed or Chaos?” from Sophia Institute Press © 1949). The Italian text of the Purgatorio, together with illustrations by Gustave Doré and others, is available from http://www.italica.rai.it/principali/dante
The world’s greatest work of theological poetry is perhaps the so-called Divine Comedy of the Italian Dante Alighieri. On the surface a guided tour in three parts through Hell, Purgatory, and Heaven; it is in fact a work of allegory, describing in images the nature of Sin, the Christian Life, and the knowledge of God.
Perhaps the most practically applicable of the three parts of the Divine Comedy is the Purgatorio, which allegorically describes the process of sanctification in the life of the believer. Louis Berkhof in his book A Summary of Christian Doctrine, describes sanctification as:
“that gracious and continuous operation of the Holy Spirit by which He purifies the sinner, renews his whole nature in the image of God, and enables him to perform good works.”
Sanctification follows conversion, and so the souls in Dante’s Purgatorio are described in Canto II as arriving joyfully, singing Psalm 114 (Psalm 113 in the Latin Vulgate), escorted by an angel. This is beautifully illustrated in the engraving by Gustave Doré below. In a letter to his patron, Dante explains how this Psalm refers both to Christ’s work of redemption, and to the conversion of each particular soul.
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“In exitu Israel de Aegypto” |
“In exitu Israel de Aegypto,”
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The English translation here is by Dorothy Sayers, available in Penguin Classics. Dorothy Sayers (1893–1957) is perhaps better known for her detective novels, but she was also a great Christian writer and scholar. I cannot recommend her translation of Dante too highly — not only is it brilliantly done, but it brings out Dante’s Christian message very well, and comes with extremely helpful notes.
While sanctification is the work of the Holy Spirit, it is a work that each Christian can cooperate with — indeed it is a work with which we must cooperate. Dante’s Purgatorio provides an excellent description of how we should do this. Dante’s starting point is what St Paul writes in Colossians 3:1–17:
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Since, then, you have been raised with Christ, set your hearts on things above, where Christ is seated at the right hand of God. Set your minds on things above, not on earthly things. For you died, and your life is now hidden with Christ in God. When Christ, who is your life, appears, then you also will appear with him in glory. Put to death, therefore, whatever belongs to your earthly nature: sexual immorality, impurity, lust, evil desires and greed, which is idolatry. Because of these, the wrath of God is coming. You used to walk in these ways, in the life you once lived. But now you must rid yourselves of all such things as these: anger, rage, malice, slander, and filthy language from your lips. Do not lie to each other, since you have taken off your old self with its practices and have put on the new self, which is being renewed in knowledge in the image of its Creator. Here there is no Greek or Jew, circumcised or uncircumcised, barbarian, Scythian, slave or free, but Christ is all, and is in all. Therefore, as God’s chosen people, holy and dearly loved, clothe yourselves with compassion, kindness, humility, gentleness and patience. Bear with each other and forgive whatever grievances you may have against one another. Forgive as the Lord forgave you. And over all these virtues put on love, which binds them all together in perfect unity. Let the peace of Christ rule in your hearts, since as members of one body you were called to peace. And be thankful. Let the word of Christ dwell in you richly as you teach and admonish one another with all wisdom, and as you sing psalms, hymns and spiritual songs with gratitude in your hearts to God. And whatever you do, whether in word or deed, do it all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him. |
The Purgatorio is therefore structured according to the so-called seven deadly sins. As Dorothy Sayers points out, these are better described as the seven roots of sinfulness: Pride, Envy, Anger (or Wrath), Sloth (or Accidie), Covetousness (or Avarice), Gluttony (or Greed), and Lust. For each of these, Dante provides examples of the opposite virtue, taken from the Bible and from classical literature, and he also provides appropriate “psalms, hymns, and spiritual songs,” which are the focus of this essay.
In Canto VIII, Dante provides a truly beautiful description of how the Christian souls communally sing the evening hymn Te lucis ante terminum, and how in response the angels of Hope come from heaven to guard them during the night. This hymn was composed by St Ambrose (339–397), and the English translation is by J. M. Neale (1818–1866):
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Te lucis ante terminum,
Procul recedant somnia
Praesta, Pater piissime, |
To Thee, before the close of day
From all ill dreams defend our eyes,
O Father, that we ask be done |
Pride is really the root of all sin. It is the desire to make the self, rather than God, the centre of the Universe. This desire — wanting to be “as God” — is what caused the fall of Adam and Eve (Genesis 3:5).
As a counter to the Sin of Pride, in Canto XI Dante provides an expanded version of the Lord’s Prayer. Just as Pride is the root of all sin, so should the prayer that Jesus Himself gave us be the root of all our prayers:
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O Padre nostro, che ne’ cieli stai,
laudato sia ‘l tuo nome e ‘l tuo valore
Vegna ver’ noi la pace del tuo regno,
Come del suo voler li angeli tuoi
Dà oggi a noi la cotidiana manna,
E come noi lo mal ch’avem sofferto
Nostra virtù che di legger s’adona, |
Our Father, dwelling in the Heavens, nowise
Hallowed Thy Name be and the Power thereof,
Let come to us, let come Thy Kingdom’s peace;
Like as with glad Hosannas at Thy throne
Our daily manna give to us this day,
As we, with all our debtors reconciled,
Put not our strength, too easily ensnared |
Each section of this prayer beautifully brings out the meaning of the corresponding clause of the Lord’s Prayer, with particular emphasis on God’s greatness, and our total dependence on Him. Without God, our best work can only bring us backwards: even resisting temptation is something we cannot do without God’s help. But Dante also offers the hope of an appropriate beatitude: “Blessed are the poor in spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven” (Matthew 5:3).
Just as Pride is the total opposite of Jesus’ first commandment to love God with all our heart, and soul, and mind, and strength (Mark 12:30), so the Sin of Envy is the total opposite of His second commandment to love our neighbour as ourselves (Mark 12:31). Just as Pride was the sin of Adam and Eve, Envy was the sin of Cain — and it led him to kill his brother (Genesis 4:1–9).
As Dorothy Sayers says in her incisive essay The Other Six Deadly Sins (available in the excellent collection Creed or Chaos? from Sophia Institute Press), the sin of Envy hides itself under the slogan of “my rights,” but at bottom it hates to see anyone else happy. Envy wishes all the happiness in the world to be centred on me; and so Envy, left to itself, produces a world in which nobody is happy at all.
Envy is the “green-eyed monster” that tears apart all human relationships. To quote Dorothy Sayers:
“In love, Envy is cruel, jealous, and possessive. My friend and my married partner must be wholly wrapped up in me, and must find no interests outside me. That is my right. No person, no work, no hobby must rob me of any part of that right. If we cannot be happy together we will be unhappy together — but there must be no escape into pleasures that I cannot share. If my husband’s work means more to him that I do, I will see him ruined rather than preoccupied; if my wife is so abandoned as to enjoy Beethoven or dancing, or anything else which I do not appreciate, I will so nag and insult her that she will no longer be able to indulge these tastes with a mind at ease.”
Dante’s prayer here (Canto XIII) is the traditional Christian confession or Confiteor (recognisable by its specific list of names — Maria, Michele, Pietro, “e Tutti santi”):
Confiteor Deo Omnipotenti, beatae Mariae semper Virgini, beato Michaeli Archangelo, beato Joanni Baptistae, sanctis Apostolis Petro et Paulo, et omnibus Sanctis: quia peccavi nimis cogitatione, verbo et opere (here strike the breast three times as a sign of humility) mea culpa, mea culpa, mea maxima culpa. Ideo precor beatam Mariam semper Virginem, beatum Michaelem Archangelum, beatum Joannem Baptistam, sanctos Apostolos Petrum et Paulum, et omnes Sanctos, orare pro me ad Dominum Deum nostrum. Amen. |
I confess to Almighty God, to the blessed Virgin Mary, to the blessed Archangel Michael, to blessed John the Baptist, to the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and to all the Saints that I have sinned exceedingly in thought, word, and deed (here strike the breast three times as a sign of humility) through my fault, through my fault, through my most grievous fault. Therefore, I beseech the blessed Virgin Mary, the blessed Archangel Michael, blessed John the Baptist, the holy Apostles Peter and Paul, and all the Saints, to pray for me to the Lord our God. Amen. |
This prayer (like the previous one, and the one which follows) is taken from the traditional Mass, and so Dante communicates the importance of the Sacraments (as means of Grace) in sanctification. There are, however, three other important things that he is referring to here. First, the importance of confessing our sins. When we pray, we should admit to God (and to ourselves) the Envy and other sins that lie at the root of our actions.
Second, if we should envy anything at all, we should (in a sense) envy the good works of the Saints. Rather than prompting the sin of Envy by reading about millionaires or movie stars, we should read about the lives of Mary, Peter, Paul, Polycarp, Francis, Catherine, Theresa, and other heroes of the Church. Those are the people we should wish to be like. We should wish to build up our treasure in Heaven, not on Earth (Matthew 6:19–21).
Third, what we should first and foremost desire from other people is their prayers. The Church has traditionally believed that those in Heaven are aware of what is happening on Earth (Revelation 6:9–10), and can pray for us. From this developed the controversial Catholic policy of asking Saints to pray for one (never praying to Saints, for that would be idolatry). But certainly there is no controversy (and great benefit) in asking people here on Earth to pray for one — family, friends, and Church members — and of course each of us should do the same in return.
Again, Dante offers the hope of an appropriate beatitude: “Blessed are the merciful, for they will be shown mercy” (Matthew 5:7).
Dante lists the deadly sin of Anger (or Wrath) after Pride and Envy, since it is in one sense not quite as bad. Anger has its roots in a sense of Justice, which is a good thing in itself; but Anger twists Justice into a horrible parody of itself. Whether by shouting, by physical violence, or by cold and hurtful words, Anger seeks to hurt the neighbour whom we should love.
Against the sin of Anger, in Canto XVI Dante offers the Agnus Dei, a prayer based on John 1:29:
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Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis. Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, miserere nobis. Agnus Dei, qui tollis peccata mundi, dona nobis pacem. |
Lamb of God, Who takes away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. Lamb of God, Who takes away the sins of the world, have mercy on us. Lamb of God, Who takes away the sins of the world, grant us Your peace. |
This is a simple yet effective prayer that we can pray silently when we notice angry feelings building up inside us.
This prayer reminds us that if God in human form could allow Himself to be tortured by Roman soldiers — if the only man without sin could be crucified under a travesty of both Jewish and Roman law — then perhaps we can accept the small (and possibly imaginary) injustices that life brings, and turn the other cheek (Matthew 5:38–42).
The Agnus Dei also reminds us that our greatest need is not for justice, but for mercy (see the parable in Matthew 18:21–35).
Finally, it reminds us to cast our cares on the Lord (Psalm 55:22), who has shown in the greatest possible way how much He loves us, and accept His peace.
The beatitude quoted here is naturally: “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be called sons of God” (Matthew 5:9).
The sin of Sloth (better named Accidie) is the sin most frequently misunderstood. It refers to a failure to do what is spiritually beneficial. In its extreme form it is the sin of Despair. As Dorothy Sayers says in The Other Six Deadly Sins:
“It is the accomplice of the other sins and their worst punishment. It is the sin which believes in nothing, cares for nothing, seeks to know nothing, interferes with nothing, enjoys nothing, loves nothing, hates nothing, finds purpose in nothing, lives for nothing, and only remains alive because there is nothing it would die for. We have known it far too well for many years. The only thing perhaps that we have not known about it is that it is mortal sin.”
Dante offers no verbal prayer for Accidie. The only answer for this form of spiritual sadness is action. Dante is telling us to read the Bible more often than we do, and to pray more regularly. If we don’t attend Church every week, we should do so. Twice a week if possible. We should spend more time with our families. We should work to help those around us. We should turn off that soul-numbing soap opera, and spend some time in the garden, thinking about the God who created the rose for its beauty and the parsley for its usefulness. Instead of driving to work, we should walk past some trees and praise the Lord who created them. If driving is necessary, we should stop somewhere and sing a hymn of praise. We should take the time to appreciate the beauty of the sunset and the stars (Psalm 8). These things may not always be easy to do, and so we need to pray to God for the strength to take the action that we need (Mark 14:38–39). Then there will be comfort from God, both in this life and in the life to come: “Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted” (Matthew 5:4).
The struggle against Accidie leads naturally to the second section of the Purgatorio, where the three prayers are taken from the Divine Office — that daily cycle of prayer, psalms, hymns, and Bible-reading that formed the basis for religious life in the Middle Ages (and which continues in many places today).
The sin of Covetousness or Avarice (like the two sins which follow) is based on a love of things which are themselves good. There is no sin in appreciating God’s creation, but love of God and our neighbour should come first. The sins of Covetousness (Avarice), Gluttony (Greed), and Lust involve appreciating God’s creation in ways which are excessive or contrary to God commandments. In one sense, these sins are less serious than Pride and Envy, and Jesus Christ Himself was criticised by the proud Pharisees for His “soft” attitude towards fraudulent tax-collectors, gluttons, drunkards, and adulterous women (Matthew 9:11, Matthew 11:19, John 8:3–11).
Yet Covetousness or Avarice is a cold and deadly sin, which focuses all one’s attention on money and material possessions. As Jesus says in Matthew 6:24, it is impossible to serve both God and Money, and He underscored the need for the Covetous to release the hold that money had on them (Matthew 19:16–24, Luke 19:1–9). This message is worth emphasising in an age where Covetousness is the foundation of our entire economic system.
The prayer that Dante provides for the Covetous (Canto XIX) is the fourth section of Psalm 119 (Psalm 118 in the Latin Vulgate). This is a prayer for humility and honesty.
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25 Adhaesit pavimento
anima mea: vivifica me
secundum verbum tuum. |
25 I am laid low in the dust;
preserve my life according to your word. |
This prayer tells us to be less proud and to make do with fewer material possessions. It also tells us that we should set our hearts of God’s laws, rather than on material possessions. Finally, it reminds us not to allow our love for material possessions to tempt us to engage in deceitful, dubious, or dishonest business practices. Instead, we should seek righteousness: “Blessed are those who … thirst for righteousness, for they will be filled” (Matthew 5:6).
The sin of Gluttony or Greed is one of careless overindulgence in the pleasures that God created as part of Nature. Just as Covetousness focuses on desirable objects, Gluttony focuses on pleasurable feelings or sensations of every kind. Gluttony is often regarded as a “warm and friendly” sin that permits good relationships with other people — friends can go out together to enjoy a movie, a meal, or a drink. At least, it begins that way, but in Gluttony the desire for pleasure does not know when to stop, because the focus on God has been lost. In his earlier work, the Inferno, Dante provides a vivid picture of Gluttony as it really is — a cold and lonely spiritual void. In Gluttony’s extreme forms — alcoholism, eating disorders, and drug addiction — its true nature is clearly revealed. To be freed from these extreme forms of Gluttony requires more than human effort — but that is true of all sin. No sin can be defeated without God’s help.
In Ephesians 5:18–20, Paul tells us that we should focus on spiritual pleasures first, and reminds us of the natural counter-prayer associated with Gluttony: the giving of thanks or saying Grace. This focuses our attention back on God, and reminds us that any pleasure we feel uncomfortable thanking God for is a pleasure best avoided.
Dante’s prayer against Gluttony (Canto XXIII) is Psalm 51 (Psalm 50 in the Latin Vulgate), which is the Psalm that David wrote after the prophet Nathan rebuked him for committing adultery with Bathsheba:
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1 Miserere mei Deus, secundum
magnam misericordiam tuam.
4 Quoniam iniquitatem meam ego
cognosco: et peccatum meum contra
me est semper.
8 Asperges me hyssopo, et
mundabor: lavabis me, et super
nivem dealbabor.
11 Cor mundum crea in me, Deus:
et spiritum rectum innova in
visceribus meis.
14 Docebo iniquos vias tuas: et
impii ad te convertentur.
19 Benigne fac, Domine, in bona
voluntate tua Sion: ut aedificentur
muri Jerusalem. |
1 Have mercy on me, O God,
according to your unfailing love;
3 For I know my transgressions,
and my sin is always before me.
7 Cleanse me with hyssop, and I will be clean;
wash me, and I will be whiter than snow.
10 Create in me a pure heart, O God,
and renew a steadfast spirit within me.
13 Then I will teach transgressors your ways,
and sinners will turn back to you.
18 In your good pleasure make Zion prosper;
build up the walls of Jerusalem. |
This Psalm focuses our attention on God, and confesses our sin. Verse 15 (16 in the Latin) reminds us that the first and foremost function of our mouth is not eating and drinking. Medieval monks following the Benedictine Rule (and also many lay people) would repeat this Psalm each and every morning, together with Psalms 67 and 148–150 (66 and 148–150 in the Latin Vulgate). In fact, verse 15 of this Psalm (16 in the Latin) would be the first words uttered at the beginning of each day. The monks would end each day with Psalms 4, 91, and 134 (4, 90, and 133 in the Latin Vulgate), and the evening hymn Te lucis ante terminum, which we have already met.
Dante repeats the previous beatitude here, since it remains appropriate, but this time he inserts the word “hunger” which he had previously omitted: “Blessed are those who hunger … for righteousness, for they will be filled” (Matthew 5:6).
Lust, like Gluttony, is inappropriate indulgence in pleasure — in this case, in one of God’s greatest gifts, the love between a man and a woman. This love — celebrated, for example, in the Song of Songs — is so great that it serves as a picture of the love between God and His Church. Revelation 21:2 speaks of the Church as “a bride beautifully dressed for her husband,” and so should we be. The sin of Lust perverts this great love, defiling the temple of the Holy Spirit that our bodies should be (I Corinthians 6:18–20). At its best, Lust still cares for other people, but even then it is the cry of a soul lost in the darkness, as Dante points out in the Inferno. At its worst, Lust descends to that greatest of evils, the treating of other people as things to be used.
Just as Gluttony has its own natural counter-prayer — the saying of Grace — so Lust has its own natural counter-sacrament: that of marriage. Within marriage, the gift of sexuality can be enjoyed without releasing the monster that sexuality can become.
Dante’s prayer against Lust (Canto XXV) is a morning hymn from the Divine Office: Summae Deus clementiae. The author of this 7th century hymn is unknown, but the English translation is by John David Chambers (1805–1893):
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Summae Deus clementiae
Nostros piis cum canticis
Lumbos adure congruis
Ut, quique horas noctium
Praesta, Pater piissime, |
Great God of boundless mercy hear;
Do Thou in love accept our lays
Our reins and hearts in pity heal,
Now as our anthems, upward borne,
Hear Thou our prayer, Almighty King; |
This hymn praises God and (in the third verse) asks God to tame our Lust and other sins, so that we may be ready (with “girded loins”) to serve Him.
Each of Dante’s prayer triplets follows the same general form: an acknowledgement of our complete dependence on God, a confession of our sin, and a humble request for help in fighting it. This is a structure that we can also use for our own prayers.
As for the other six deadly sins, Dante provides the hope of appropriate beatitude: “Blessed are the pure in heart, for they will see God” (Matthew 5:8).
After the fight against sin is finally won, what comes next is Paradise (James 1:12). In Paradise (Canto XXVIII) Dante provides Psalm 92 (Psalm 91 in the Latin Vulgate). This Sabbath-day psalm is one of joyful celebration and the hope of victory — a hope that we must never lose hold of:
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1 Bonum est confiteri Domino: et psallere nomini tuo,
Altissime.
4 Quia delectasti me, Domine, in factura tua: et in
operibus manuum tuarum exsultabo. 8 Ut intereant in saeculum saeculi: tu autem Altissimus in aeternum, Domine.
9 Quoniam ecce inimici tui, Domine, quoniam ecce inimici
tui peribunt: et dispergentur omnes, qui operantur
iniquitatem.
12 Justus, ut palma florebit: sicut cedrus Libani
multiplicabitur. |
1 It is good to praise the LORD
and make music to your name, O Most High,
4 For you make me glad by your deeds, O LORD;
I sing for joy at the works of your hands. 8 But you, O LORD, are exalted forever.
9 For surely your enemies, O LORD,
surely your enemies will perish;
all evildoers will be scattered.
12 The righteous will flourish like a palm tree,
they will grow like a cedar of Lebanon; |