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| St Peter’s, Rome | San Paolo Fuori le Mura, Rome |
by Tony Dekker (Version 0.7.1, Easter 2005).
Copyright © 2005 by Anthony Dekker. Permission is given to distribute this review freely for non-profit use, provided that it is not altered and that this copyright notice remains intact. See also http://members.ozemail.com.au/~dekker/essays/
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English Scripture taken from the HOLY BIBLE, NEW INTERNATIONAL VERSION ®, except where indicated. Copyright © 1973, 1978, 1984 by International Bible Society. Used by permission of Zondervan Publishing House. See http://www.gospelcom.net/ibs/niv/
I have decided to produce a brief survey of the history of the early Christian Church. In doing so, I owe a considerable debt to Eusebius, the Bishop of Caesaria, for his “The History of the Church” (available at http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.html), which examined the first three centuries of the Church in detail almost 1700 years ago.
Just as the Church Calendar traditionally begins with Easter, we can begin the history of the Church with the Resurrection, which probably occurred in the year 30:
Early on the first day of the week, while it was still dark, Mary Magdalene went to the tomb and saw that the stone had been removed from the entrance. So she came running to Simon Peter and the other disciple, the one Jesus loved, and said, “They have taken the Lord out of the tomb, and we don’t know where they have put him!”
So Peter and the other disciple started for the tomb. Both were running, but the other disciple outran Peter and reached the tomb first. He bent over and looked in at the strips of linen lying there but did not go in. Then Simon Peter, who was behind him, arrived and went into the tomb. He saw the strips of linen lying there, as well as the burial cloth that had been around Jesus’ head. The cloth was folded up by itself, separate from the linen. Finally the other disciple, who had reached the tomb first, also went inside. He saw and believed. (They still did not understand from Scripture that Jesus had to rise from the dead.) (John 20:1–9)
There is compelling evidence both in the text of this Gospel, and in early Christian writings, that this description was indeed written by the Apostle John himself. In about the year 34 there was another important event: the conversion of the man who was to become the Apostle Paul. His companion Luke describes it this way:
Meanwhile, Saul was still breathing out murderous threats against the Lord’s disciples. He went to the high priest and asked him for letters to the synagogues in Damascus, so that if he found any there who belonged to the Way, whether men or women, he might take them as prisoners to Jerusalem. As he neared Damascus on his journey, suddenly a light from heaven flashed around him. He fell to the ground and heard a voice say to him, “Saul, Saul, why do you persecute me?”
“Who are you, Lord?” Saul asked.
“I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting,” he replied. “Now get up and go into the city, and you will be told what you must do.”
The men traveling with Saul stood there speechless; they heard the sound but did not see anyone. Saul got up from the ground, but when he opened his eyes he could see nothing. So they led him by the hand into Damascus. For three days he was blind, and did not eat or drink anything. (Acts 9:1–9)
While Paul began his work of preaching Christianity to the Greek-speakers of the ancient world, in Rome the emperor Tiberius was succeeded (in the year 37) by a thoroughly unpleasant individual nicknamed Caligula, who famously said “let them hate me as long as they fear me.” That same year, Pontius Pilate was recalled for his extreme behaviour, and the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus was born, who had later this to say about Pilate:
But when this tumult was appeased, the Samaritan senate sent an embassy to Vitellius, a man that had been consul, and who was now president of Syria, and accused Pilate of the murder of those that were killed; for that they did not go to Tirathaba in order to revolt from the Romans, but to escape the violence of Pilate. So Vitellius sent Marcellus, a friend of his, to take care of the affairs of Judea, and ordered Pilate to go to Rome, to answer before the emperor to the accusations of the Jews. So Pilate, when he had tarried ten years in Judea, made haste to Rome, and this in obedience to the orders of Vitellius, which he durst not contradict; but before he could get to Rome Tiberius was dead.
(Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, translated by William Whiston, A.M., Book 18, Section 4(2). Available at http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-18.htm).
Meanwhile, in Alexandria in Egypt, a Jewish philosopher was combining Jewish thought with Greek philosophy, particularly developing the concept of the Logos, which was to have an influence on Christian thinkers, especially those from his home town.
The 40s were a decade of Church growth in the face of opposition. In 44, James the brother of John was killed by King Herod Agrippa (Acts 12:2). That same year Herod Agrippa died.
Between about 46 and 48, Paul made his first missionary journey, from Antioch to Cyprus and Galatia. Luke describes this journey in Acts 13 and 14. Sometime after returning, Paul wrote the letter to the Galatians which now forms part of the New Testament.
In 49, the Emperor Claudius (who replaced Caligula in 41) expelled the Jews from the City of Rome. The brief description of this event by the Roman historian Suetonius suggests that he became tired of conflicts between Christians and Jews. Also that year was the council in Jerusalem (described in Acts 15) which produced the following letter:
The apostles and elders, your brothers, To the Gentile believers in Antioch, Syria and Cilicia: Greetings. We have heard that some went out from us without our authorization and disturbed you, troubling your minds by what they said. So we all agreed to choose some men and send them to you with our dear friends Barnabas and Paul- men who have risked their lives for the name of our Lord Jesus Christ. Therefore we are sending Judas and Silas to confirm by word of mouth what we are writing. It seemed good to the Holy Spirit and to us not to burden you with anything beyond the following requirements: You are to abstain from food sacrificed to idols, from blood, from the meat of strangled animals and from sexual immorality. You will do well to avoid these things. Farewell. (Acts 15:23b–29)
Shortly after, Paul began his second missionary journey (Acts 15–21), which was to take him back to Galatia, but also to Ephesus, to Philippi in Macedonia, and to Thessalonica, Athens, and Corinth. Here Paul met Priscilla and Aquila, two Jewish Christians expelled from Rome by Claudius. Aquila had taught his wife theology (which seems to have made a favorable impression on Paul) and the way in which she is usually named first suggests that she had become the greater theologian of the two (indeed, there is a theory that she is the author of the Epistle to the Hebrews). Paul stayed with them, and they not only became good friends, but Priscilla and Aquila also seem to have strongly influenced Paul’s idea of what a successful Christian marriage should be like.
The year 51 or 52 (dated from archaeology) saw Paul appear before the proconsul Gallio in Corinth (Acts 18). According to early Christian writers, it was at this time in Corinth that Paul wrote his first letter to the Thessalonians, which forms part of the New Testament. A year or two later, Paul began his third missionary journey, and wrote the letters to the Corinthians and Romans (also in the New Testament). About this time, Mark probably wrote the Gospel that bears his name, based on the teachings of the apostle Peter in Rome. At least, this is the consensus of early Christian writers from Europe, Africa, and the Middle East. It is supported by Irenaeus of Lyons (130–200), a student of Polycarp (69–155), who was in turn a student of the Apostle John:
Matthew also issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect [Aramaic], while Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome, and laying the foundations of the Church. After their departure, Mark, the disciple and interpreter of Peter, did also hand down to us in writing what had been preached by Peter. Luke also, the companion of Paul, recorded in a book the Gospel preached by him. Afterwards, John, the disciple of the Lord, who also had leaned upon His breast, did himself publish a Gospel during his residence at Ephesus in Asia.
(Irenaeus, Against Heresies, translated by the Rev. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, Book 3, Chapter 1 (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103301.htm). The passage is also quoted on page 154 of the Penguin Classics edition of Eusebius’ The History of the Church).
Polycarp himself also quotes extensively from the Gospels in his Epistle to the Philippians, e.g.
“Wherefore, girding up your loins,” “serve the Lord in fear” and truth, as those who have forsaken the vain, empty talk and error of the multitude, and “believed in Him who raised up our Lord Jesus Christ from the dead, and gave Him glory,” and a throne at His right hand. To Him all things in heaven and on earth are subject. Him every spirit serves. He comes as the Judge of the living and the dead. His blood will God require of those who do not believe in Him. But He who raised Him up from the dead will raise up us also, if we do His will, and walk in His commandments, and love what He loved, keeping ourselves from all unrighteousness, covetousness, love of money, evil speaking, false witness; “not rendering evil for evil, or railing for railing,” or blow for blow, or cursing for cursing, but being mindful of what the Lord said in His teaching: “Judge not, that ye be not judged; [Matt. 7:1] forgive, and it shall be forgiven unto you; [Luke 6:37] be merciful, that ye may obtain mercy; with what measure ye mete, it shall be measured to you again; [Matt 7:2] and once more, “Blessed are the poor, and those that are persecuted for righteousness’ sake, for theirs is the kingdom of God.” [Matt 5]
(Polycarp, Epistle to the Philippians, translated by the Rev. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iv.ii.ii.html). The passage also appears on page 119 of the Penguin Classics edition of Early Christian Writings).
Markan authorship is also supported by Papias of Hierapolis, also a student of John, writing in about 140, and quoted by Eusebius:
And the presbyter said this. Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote down accurately whatsoever he remembered. It was not, however, in exact order that he related the sayings or deeds of Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor accompanied Him. But afterwards, as I said, he accompanied Peter, who accommodated his instructions to the necessities [of his hearers], but with no intention of giving a regular narrative of the Lord’s sayings. Wherefore Mark made no mistake in thus writing some things as he remembered them. For of one thing he took especial care, not to omit anything he had heard, and not to put anything fictitious into the statements. … Matthew put together the oracles [of the Lord] in the Hebrew language [Aramaic], and each one interpreted [translated] them as best he could.
(Papias, fragment, translated by the Rev. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0125.htm). The passage is quoted on page 103 of the Penguin Classics edition of Eusebius’ The History of the Church).
Since Eusebius quotes extant works accurately, his quotation of lost works is also likely to be correct. Further support is provided by Clement of Alexandria, writing in about 190, and summarised by Eusebius:
Again, in the same books, Clement gives the tradition of the earliest presbyters, as to the order of the Gospels, in the following manner: The Gospels containing the genealogies, he says, were written first. The Gospel according to Mark had this occasion. As Peter had preached the Word publicly at Rome, and declared the Gospel by the Spirit, many who were present requested that Mark, who had followed him for a long time and remembered his sayings, should write them out. And having composed the Gospel he gave it to those who had requested it. When Peter learned of this, he neither directly forbade nor encouraged it. But, last of all, John, perceiving that the external facts had been made plain in the Gospel, being urged by his friends, and inspired by the Spirit, composed a spiritual Gospel.
(Eusebius, The History of the Church, translated by the Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Book 6, Chapter 14 (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.xi.xiv.html). The passage also appears on page 192 of the Penguin Classics edition).
Clement’s student Origen repeated similar statements in his Commentaries on the Gospels, and about 200, Tertullian in Carthage said much the same things:
The same authority of the apostolic churches will afford evidence to the other Gospels also, which we possess equally through their means,and according to their usage – I mean the Gospels of John and Matthew – whilst that which Mark published may be affirmed to be Peter’s whose interpreter Mark was.
(Tertullian, Against Marcion, translated by Peter Holmes, Book 4, Chapter 5, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf03.v.iv.v.v.html).
This decade also saw two dark clouds appear on the horizon: in about 57, Paul was arrested in Jerusalem and imprisoned by Felix, the Roman governor. Paul was to stay in prison for the remainder of the 50s. In 54, Claudius was succeeded as Emperor by Nero, who was to prove extremely hostile to Christianity.
The 60s were a tumultuous decade for the Church (as was equally true 1900 years later). In about 60, Felix was deposed as governor of Judea, and Festus replaced him. As Acts 25 records, when Paul was on trial before Festus, he appealed to the Emperor, and was therefore sent to Rome and imprisoned there. In 62, James the “brother” (half-brother or cousin) of Jesus was stoned:
And now Caesar, upon hearing the death of Festus, sent Albinus into Judea, as procurator. But the king deprived Joseph of the high priesthood, and bestowed the succession to that dignity on the son of Ananus, who was also himself called Ananus. Now the report goes that this eldest Ananus proved a most fortunate man; for he had five sons who had all performed the office of a high priest to God, and who had himself enjoyed that dignity a long time formerly, which had never happened to any other of our high priests. But this younger Ananus, who, as we have told you already, took the high priesthood, was a bold man in his temper, and very insolent; he was also of the sect of the Sadducees, who are very rigid in judging offenders, above all the rest of the Jews, as we have already observed; when, therefore, Ananus was of this disposition, he thought he had now a proper opportunity [to exercise his authority]. Festus was now dead, and Albinus was but upon the road; so he assembled the sanhedrim of judges, and brought before them the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James, and some others, [or, some of his companions]; and when he had formed an accusation against them as breakers of the law, he delivered them to be stoned: but as for those who seemed the most equitable of the citizens, and such as were the most uneasy at the breach of the laws, they disliked what was done; they also sent to the king [Agrippa], desiring him to send to Ananus that he should act so no more, for that what he had already done was not to be justified; nay, some of them went also to meet Albinus, as he was upon his journey from Alexandria, and informed him that it was not lawful for Ananus to assemble a sanhedrim without his consent. Whereupon Albinus complied with what they said, and wrote in anger to Ananus, and threatened that he would bring him to punishment for what he had done; on which king Agrippa took the high priesthood from him, when he had ruled but three months, and made Jesus, the son of Damneus, high priest.
(Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews, translated by William Whiston, A.M., Book 20, Section 9(1). Available at http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/ant-20.htm . The passage is also quoted on page 61 of the Penguin Classics edition of Eusebius’ The History of the Church).
James is regarded as the first Christian Bishop of Jerusalem. There were to be many others, for it was a position with a very short life-expectancy. About this time, Luke must have written his Gospel (which relies partly on the older Gospel of Mark, as well as on a Greek translation of the Sayings of Jesus written by Matthew in Aramaic). Luke followed his Gospel by the book of Acts. This dating of Luke’s Gospel is supported by the abrupt ending of Acts, which leaves Paul in Rome awaiting trial, but doesn’t tell us the outcome. In fact, the outcome was bloody. The Emperor Nero set fire to the city of Rome in 64, and blamed the Christians for doing so:
But all human efforts, all the lavish gifts of the emperor, and the propitiations of the gods, did not banish the sinister belief that the conflagration was the result of an order. Consequently, to get rid of the report, Nero fastened the guilt and inflicted the most exquisite tortures on a class hated for their abominations, called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus, and a most mischievous superstition, thus checked for the moment, again broke out not only in Judaea, the first source of the evil, but even in Rome, where all things hideous and shameful from every part of the world find their centre and become popular. Accordingly, an arrest was first made of all who pleaded guilty; then, upon their information, an immense multitude was convicted, not so much of the crime of firing the city, as of hatred against mankind. Mockery of every sort was added to their deaths. Covered with the skins of beasts, they were torn by dogs and perished, or were nailed to crosses, or were doomed to the flames and burnt, to serve as a nightly illumination, when daylight had expired. Nero offered his gardens for the spectacle, and was exhibiting a show in the circus, while he mingled with the people in the dress of a charioteer or stood aloft on a car. Hence, even for criminals who deserved extreme and exemplary punishment, there arose a feeling of compassion; for it was not, as it seemed, for the public good, but to glut one man’s cruelty, that they were being destroyed.
(Tacitus, Annals, translated by Alfred John Church and William Jackson Brodribb, Book 15, Section 44. Available at http://mcadams.posc.mu.edu/txt/ah/Tacitus/TacitusAnnals15.html#Tacitus.Annals.15.44 . A more modern translation is available from Penguin Classics: this passage occurs on page 365–366).
Tacitus was himself a boy of about eight when these events occurred, but the horror was clearly fresh in his mind when he wrote this. He was obviously no friend to Christians, but there is no reason to doubt his description. In the persecution that followed, both Peter and Paul, those two backbones of the Church, were killed. Their burial places continued to be honoured by Christians in Rome, until eventually churches were built over the sites:
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| St Peter’s, Rome | San Paolo Fuori le Mura, Rome |
The deaths of these two men must have seemed a devastating blow to the Church. The book of Revelation refers clearly to Rome, the “city of seven hills,” in less than complimentary terms (Revelation 17:9), and the “two witnesses” of Revelation 11:3 seem to refer (at least in part) to Peter and Paul.
In the year 66, the Jews in Palestine began a doomed revolt against Roman occupation. It ended in the year 70, with the destruction of the Temple of Jerusalem, where the Jews had held their last stand. The entire conflict is described in detail by the Jewish historian Josephus in The Jewish War. For Jewish Christians, the destruction of the Temple reinforced the ideas expressed in the Epistle to the Hebrews, that Jesus had fulfilled the Old Testament system of sacrifices, and rendered them obsolete.
Now although any one would justly lament the destruction of such a work as this was, since it was the most admirable of all the works that we have seen or heard of, both for its curious structure and its magnitude, and also for the vast wealth bestowed upon it, as well as for the glorious reputation it had for its holiness; yet might such a one comfort himself with this thought, that it was fate that decreed it so to be, which is inevitable, both as to living creatures, and as to works and places also. However, one cannot but wonder at the accuracy of this period thereto relating; for the same month and day were now observed, as I said before, wherein the holy house was burnt formerly by the Babylonians. Now the number of years that passed from its first foundation, which was laid by king Solomon, till this its destruction, which happened in the second year of the reign of Vespasian, are collected to be one thousand one hundred and thirty, besides seven months and fifteen days; and from the second building of it, which was done by Haggai, in the second year of Cyrus the king, till its destruction under Vespasian, there were six hundred and thirty-nine years and forty-five days.
(Flavius Josephus, The Jewish War, translated by William Whiston, A.M., Book 6, Section 4(8). Available at http://www.ccel.org/j/josephus/works/war-6.htm . A more modern translation is available from Penguin Classics: this passage occurs on page 359).
While all this turmoil was going on, the Apostle John was living and teaching in Ephesus. He was to outlive all the other apostles. Indeed, a superstition seems to have arisen that he was immortal, and the last chapter of the Gospel of John was written partly to counter that mistaken belief:
Peter turned and saw that the disciple whom Jesus loved was following them. (This was the one who had leaned back against Jesus at the supper and had said, “Lord, who is going to betray you?”) When Peter saw him, he asked, “Lord, what about him?” Jesus answered, “If I want him to remain alive until I return, what is that to you? You must follow me.” Because of this, the rumor spread among the brothers that this disciple would not die. But Jesus did not say that he would not die; he only said, “If I want him to remain alive until I return, what is that to you?” (John 21:20–23)
Many Christians would have made the trip to Ephesus to see and hear John: it must have been an amazing experience to learn from his own mouth the teachings of Jesus.
At about this time, Ignatius became the Bishop of Antioch, and continued in that capacity until his martyrdom in 107. He was to leave several wonderful epistles to the churches, which are still preserved, and available in Early Christian Writings from Penguin Classics, or online at http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/ (note that it is the shorter versions of these epistles which were written by Ignatius: the longer versions were produced later).
None of these things is hid from you, if ye perfectly possess that faith and love towards Christ Jesus which are the beginning and the end of life. For the beginning is faith, and the end is love. Now these two, being inseparably connected together, are of God, while all other things which are requisite for a holy life follow after them. No man [truly] making a profession of faith sinneth; nor does he that possesses love hate any one. The tree is made manifest by its fruit; so those that profess themselves to be Christians shall be recognised by their conduct. For there is not now a demand for mere profession, but that a man be found continuing in the power of faith to the end.
(Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Ephesians, 14, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0104.htm)
Let us not, therefore, be insensible to His kindness. For were He to reward us according to our works, we should cease to be. Therefore, having become His disciples, let us learn to live according to the principles of Christianity. For whosoever is called by any other name besides this, is not of God. Lay aside, therefore, the evil, the old, the sour leaven, and be ye changed into the new leaven, which is Jesus Christ. Be ye salted in Him, lest any one among you should be corrupted, since by your savour ye shall be convicted. It is absurd to profess Christ Jesus, and to Judaize. For Christianity did not embrace Judaism, but Judaism Christianity, that so every tongue which believeth might be gathered together to God.
(Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Magnesians, 10, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0105.htm)
The priests indeed are good, but the High Priest is better; to whom the holy of holies has been committed, and who alone has been trusted with the secrets of God. He is the door of the Father, by which enter in Abraham, and Isaac, and Jacob, and the prophets, and the apostles, and the Church. All these have for their object the attaining to the unity of God. But the Gospel possesses something transcendent [above the former dispensation], viz., the appearance of our Lord Jesus Christ, His passion and resurrection. For the beloved prophets announced Him, but the Gospel is the perfection of immortality. All these things are good together, if ye believe in love.
(Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Philadelphians, 9, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0108.htm)
In the year 81, Domitian became Emperor. His demand to be worshipped as a god, on pain of death, make life terribly difficult for Christians, who could not possibly do this. The persecution he unleashed on Christians who refused to worship him earned him the title “Nero reborn,” and indeed, his cruelty and depravity led even some Roman authors to refer to him this way. The book of Revelation seems to refer to Domitian as the “eighth king” who also “once was” in verse 11 of chaper 17:
The other indication that Nero and Domitian are represented by the “Beast” of Revelation, is that when “Nero Caesar” is written in Hebrew letters, the numerical value of the letters adds up to 666, the “Number of the Beast.” It was in the reign of Domitian that John (an old man by now) was exiled to the penal colony of Patmos. According to Eusebius (Book 3, Chaper 18), Flavia Domitilla, a Roman noblewoman, was also exiled for being a Christian. The book of Revelation reflects these dark times, and prophesies further dark times in the Church’s future. But it also offers the comfort of a glorious life beyond the dark times:
Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and the first earth had passed away, and there was no longer any sea. I saw the Holy City, the new Jerusalem, coming down out of heaven from God, prepared as a bride beautifully dressed for her husband. And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying, “Now the dwelling of God is with men, and he will live with them. They will be his people, and God himself will be with them and be their God. He will wipe every tear from their eyes. There will be no more death or mourning or crying or pain, for the old order of things has passed away.” He who was seated on the throne said, “I am making everything new!” Then he said, “Write this down, for these words are trustworthy and true.” (Revelation 21:1–5)
In the year 96, Domitian was assassinated, and Nerva became Emperor. He released many of the people whom Domitian had imprisoned, including John (who died a few years afterwards—the last of the Apostles to do so). Presumably Revelation was written at this time.
About the same time, Clement, the Bishop of Rome, wrote a letter to the Church at Corinth, which is still preserved, and available in Early Christian Writings from Penguin Classics, or online at http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/ :
The Church of God which sojourns at Rome, to the Church of God sojourning at Corinth, to them that are called and sanctified by the will of God, through our Lord Jesus Christ: Grace unto you, and peace, from Almighty God through Jesus Christ, be multiplied.
Owing, dear brethren, to the sudden and successive calamitous events which have happened to ourselves [the Domitian persecution], we feel that we have been somewhat tardy in turning our attention to the points respecting which you consulted us; and especially to that shameful and detestable sedition, utterly abhorrent to the elect of God, which a few rash and self-confident persons have kindled to such a pitch of frenzy, that your venerable and illustrious name, worthy to be universally loved, has suffered grievous injury. For who ever dwelt even for a short time among you, and did not find your faith to be as fruitful of virtue as it was firmly established? Who did not admire the sobriety and moderation of your godliness in Christ? Who did not proclaim the magnificence of your habitual hospitality? And who did not rejoice over your perfect and well-grounded knowledge? For ye did all things without respect of persons, and walked in the command-merits of God, being obedient to those who had the rule over you, and giving all fitting honour to the presbyters among you. Ye enjoined young men to be of a sober and serious mind; ye instructed your wives to do all things with a blameless, becoming, and pure conscience, loving their husbands as in duty bound; and ye taught them that, living in the rule of obedience, they should manage their household affairs becomingly, and be in every respect marked by discretion.
… Take up the epistle of the blessed Apostle Paul. What did he write to you at the time when the Gospel first began to be preached? Truly, under the inspiration of the Spirit, he wrote to you concerning himself, and Cephas, and Apollos, because even then parties had been formed among you. But that inclination for one above another entailed less guilt upon you, inasmuch as your partialities were then shown towards apostles, already of high reputation, and towards a man whom they had approved. But now reflect who those are that have perverted you, and lessened the renown of your far-famed brotherly love. It is disgraceful, beloved, yea, highly disgraceful, and unworthy of your Christian profession, that such a thing should be heard of as that the most stedfast and ancient Church of the Corinthians should, on account of one or two persons, engage in sedition against its presbyters. And this rumour has reached not only us, but those also who are unconnected with us; so that, through your infatuation, the name of the Lord is blasphemed, while danger is also brought upon yourselves.
… May God, who seeth all things, and who is the Ruler of all spirits and the Lord of all flesh – who chose our Lord Jesus Christ and us through Him to be a peculiar people – grant to every soul that calleth upon His glorious and holy Name, faith, fear, peace, patience, long-suffering, self-control, purity, and sobriety, to the well-pleasing of His Name, through our High Priest and Protector, Jesus Christ, by whom be to Him glory, and majesty, and power, and honour, both now and for evermore. Amen.
(Clement of Rome, Epistle to the Corinthians, 1, 47, & 58, http://www.ccel.org/fathers/ANF-01/clem/)
From this time onwards, an increasing number of Christian writings, written all over the Roman Empire, are available to us. They offer a fascinating insight into the thoughts, beliefs, and practices of the early Church. With the death of the Apostles, writing also became more important as a witness of the Truth, since there were no longer any eyewitnesses to Jesus’ ministry that one could visit.
In 107, Ignatius of Antioch was escorted by soldiers to Rome to be thrown to the lions. His letters, written during the journey, describe this as a great honour and privilege:
I write to all the Churches, and impress on them all, that I shall willingly die for God, unless ye hinder me. I beseech of you not to show an unseasonable goodwill towards me. Suffer me to become food for the wild beasts, through whose instrumentality it will be granted me to attain to God. I am the wheat of God, and am ground by the teeth of the wild beasts, that I may be found the pure bread of God. Rather entice the wild beasts, that they may become my tomb, and may leave nothing of my body; so that when I have fallen asleep [in death], I may not be found troublesome to any one. Then shall I be a true disciple of Jesus Christ, when the world shall not see so much as my body. Entreat the Lord for me, that by these instruments I may be found a sacrifice to God. I do not, as Peter and Paul, issue commandments unto you. They were apostles of Jesus Christ, but I am the very least [of believers]: they were free, as the servants of God; while I am, even until now, a servant. But when I suffer, I shall be the freedman of Jesus Christ, and shall rise again emancipated in Him. And now, being in bonds for Him, I learn not to desire anything worldly or vain.
From Syria even unto Rome I fight with beasts, both by land and sea, both by night and day, being bound to ten leopards, I mean a band of soldiers, who, even when they receive benefits, show themselves all the worse. But I am the more instructed by their injuries [to act as a disciple of Christ]; “yet am I not thereby justified” [I Corinthians 4:4]. May I enjoy the wild beasts that are prepared for me; and I pray that they may be found eager to rush upon me, which also I will entice to devour me speedily, and not deal with me as with some, whom, out of fear, they have not touched. But if they be unwilling to assail me, I will compel them to do so. Pardon me [in this] I know what is for my benefit. Now I begin to be a disciple. And let no one, of things visible or invisible, envy me that I should attain to Jesus Christ. Let fire and the cross; let the crowds of wild beasts; let tearings, breakings, and dislocations of bones; let cutting off of members; let shatterings of the whole body; and let all the dreadful torments of the devil come upon me: only let me attain to Jesus Christ.
(Ignatius of Antioch, Epistle to the Romans, 4 & 5, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0107.htm)
Also about this time, or a few decades earlier, the Didache (or the Teaching of the Apostles) was written. It contains the earliest description of Christian worship services:
Now concerning the Eucharist, give thanks this way. First, concerning the cup:We thank thee, our Father, for the holy vine of David Thy servant, which You madest known to us through Jesus Thy Servant.And concerning the broken bread:
To Thee be the glory for ever.We thank Thee, our Father, for the life and knowledge which You madest known to us through Jesus Thy Servant.But let no one eat or drink of your Eucharist, unless they have been baptized into the name of the Lord; for concerning this also the Lord has said, “Give not that which is holy to the dogs.”
To Thee be the glory for ever.
Even as this broken bread was scattered over the hills, and was gathered together and became one, so let Thy Church be gathered together from the ends of the earth into Thy kingdom.
For Thine is the glory and the power through Jesus Christ for ever.
But after you are filled, give thanks this way:We thank Thee, holy Father, for Thy holy name which You didst cause to tabernacle in our hearts, and for the knowledge and faith and immortality, which You madest known to us through Jesus Thy Servant.But permit the prophets to make Thanksgiving as much as they desire.
To Thee be the glory for ever.
Thou, Master almighty, didst create all things for Thy name’s sake; You gavest food and drink to men for enjoyment, that they might give thanks to Thee; but to us You didst freely give spiritual food and drink and life eternal through Thy Servant. Before all things we thank Thee that You are mighty.
To Thee be the glory for ever.
Remember, Lord, Thy Church, to deliver it from all evil and to make it perfect in Thy love, and gather it from the four winds, sanctified for Thy kingdom which Thou have prepared for it.
For Thine is the power and the glory for ever.
Let grace come, and let this world pass away.
Hosanna to the God (Son) of David!
If any one is holy, let him come; if any one is not so, let him repent.
Maranatha. Amen.
(Didache 9 & 10, translated by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Available at http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0714.htm)
Although this liturgy is 19 centuries old, it does not seem totally unfamiliar, and the description of baptism in the Didache is even closer to present Christian practice.
In the year 98, Nerva was succeeded as Emperor by Trajan. A fascinating but sobering view of the Church’s environment is provided by an exchange of letters between Trajan and Gaius Plinius Caecilius Secundus (usually known as Pliny the Younger), who was Governor of Pontus/Bithynia between 111 and 113:
TO THE EMPEROR TRAJAN:
It is my invariable rule, Sir, to refer to you in all matters where I feel doubtful; for who is more capable of removing my scruples, or informing my ignorance? Having never been present at any trials concerning those who profess Christianity, I am unacquainted not only with the nature of their crimes, or the measure of their punishment, but how far it is proper to enter into an examination concerning them. Whether, therefore, any difference is usually made with respect to ages, or no distinction is to be observed between the young and the adult; whether repentance entitles them to a pardon; or if a man has been once a Christian, it avails nothing to desist from his error; whether the very profession of Christianity, unattended with any criminal act, or only the crimes themselves inherent in the profession are punishable; on all these points I am in great doubt. In the meanwhile, the method I have observed towards those who have been brought before me as Christians is this: I asked them whether they were Christians; if they admitted it, I repeated the question twice, and threatened them with punishment; if they persisted, I ordered them to be at once punished: for I was persuaded, whatever the nature of their opinions might be, a contumacious and inflexible obstinacy certainly deserved correction. There were others also brought before me possessed with the same infatuation, but being Roman citizens, I directed them to be sent to Rome. But this crime spreading (as is usually the case) while it was actually under prosecution, several instances of the same nature occurred. An anonymous information was laid before me containing a charge against several persons, who upon examination denied they were Christians, or had ever been so. They repeated after me an invocation to the gods, and offered religious rites with wine and incense before your statue (which for that purpose I had ordered to be brought, together with those of the gods), and even reviled the name of Christ: whereas there is no forcing, it is said, those who are really Christians into any of these compliances: I thought it proper, therefore, to discharge them. Some among those who were accused by a witness in person at first confessed themselves Christians, but immediately after denied it; the rest owned indeed that they had been of that number formerly, but had now (some above three, others more, and a few above twenty years ago) renounced that error. They all worshipped your statue and the images of the gods, uttering imprecations at the same time against the name of Christ. They affirmed the whole of their guilt, or their error, was, that they met on a stated day before it was light, and addressed a form of prayer to Christ, as to a divinity, binding themselves by a solemn oath, not for the purposes of any wicked design, but never to commit any fraud, theft, or adultery, never to falsify their word, nor deny a trust when they should be called upon to deliver it up; after which it was their custom to separate, and then reassemble, to eat in common a harmless meal. From this custom, however, they desisted after the publication of my edict, by which, according to your commands, I forbade the meeting of any assemblies. After receiving this account, I judged it so much the more necessary to endeavor to extort the real truth, by putting two female slaves to the torture, who were said to officiate in their religious rites: but all I could discover was evidence of an absurd and extravagant superstition. I deemed it expedient, therefore, to adjourn all further proceedings, in order to consult you. For it appears to be a matter highly deserving your consideration, more especially as great numbers must be involved in the danger of these prosecutions, which have already extended, and are still likely to extend, to persons of all ranks and ages, and even of both sexes. In fact, this contagious superstition is not confined to the cities only, but has spread its infection among the neighbouring villages and country. Nevertheless, it still seems possible to restrain its progress. The temples, at least, which were once almost deserted, begin now to be frequented; and the sacred rites, after a long intermission, are again revived; while there is a general demand for the victims, which till lately found very few purchasers. From all this it is easy to conjecture what numbers might be reclaimed if a general pardon were granted to those who shall repent of their error.
TRAJAN TO PLINY:
You have adopted the right course, my dearest Secundus, in investigating the charges against the Christians who were brought before you. It is not possible to lay down any general rule for all such cases. Do not go out of your way to look for them. If indeed they should be brought before you, and the crime is proved, they must be punished; with the restriction, however, that where the party denies he is a Christian, and shall make it evident that he is not, by invoking our gods, let him (notwithstanding any former suspicion) be pardoned upon his repentance. Anonymous informations ought not to he received in any sort of prosecution. It is introducing a very dangerous precedent, and is quite foreign to the spirit of our age.
(Pliny the Younger, Letters, translated by William Melmoth and revised by F.C.T. Bosanquet, Book 10, Letters 96 & 97. Available from Project Gutenberg at http://www.ibiblio.org/gutenberg/etext01/ltpln10.txt . More modern translations are available from Penguin Classics (this passage occurs on pages 293–294) or from http://community.middlebury.edu/~harris/Classics/plinytrajan.html).
Sometime between 120 and 200, the Epistle to Diognetus (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0101.htm) was written. This Epistle represents a new kind of Christian literature: that of apologetics. Addressed to authorities or to the non-Christian world at large, apologetic literature explains what Christianity is about, corrects false rumours, and makes the case for Christian belief:
For the Christians are distinguished from other men neither by country, nor language, nor the customs which they observe. For they neither inhabit cities of their own, nor employ a peculiar form of speech, nor lead a life which is marked out by any singularity. The course of conduct which they follow has not been devised by any speculation or deliberation of inquisitive men; nor do they, like some, proclaim themselves the advocates of any merely human doctrines. But, inhabiting Greek as well as barbarian cities, according as the lot of each of them has determined, and following the customs of the natives in respect to clothing, food, and the rest of their ordinary conduct, they display to us their wonderful and confessedly striking method of life. They dwell in their own countries, but simply as sojourners. As citizens, they share in all things with others, and yet endure all things as if foreigners. Every foreign land is to them as their native country, and every land of their birth as a land of strangers. They marry, as do all [others]; they beget children; but they do not destroy their offspring. They have a common table, but not a common bed. They are in the flesh, but they do not live after the flesh. They pass their days on earth, but they are citizens of heaven. They obey the prescribed laws, and at the same time surpass the laws by their lives. They love all men, and are persecuted by all. They are unknown and condemned; they are put to death, and restored to life. They are poor, yet make many rich [2 Corinthians 6:9–10]; they are in lack of all things, and yet abound in all; they are dishonoured, and yet in their very dishonour are glorified. They are evil spoken of, and yet are justified; they are reviled, and bless; they are insulted, and repay the insult with honour; they do good, yet are punished as evil-doers. When punished, they rejoice as if quickened into life; they are assailed by the Jews as foreigners, and are persecuted by the Greeks; yet those who hate them are unable to assign any reason for their hatred.
(Epistle to Diognetus, 5, translated by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Available at http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.iii.ii.v.html).
Other examples of apologetics include the two Apologies of Justin Martyr (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0126.htm and http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0127.htm). Born about 100 in Palestine, Justin studied in Alexandria and Ephesus. At first a Platonist philosopher, he became a Christian in about 130, making him perhaps the first Christian philosopher. He was martyred in about 165, in the reign of Marcus Aurelius, for refusing to sacrifice to the Roman gods:
To the Emperor Titus Ælius Adrianus Antoninus Pius Augustus Cæsar, and to his son Verissimus the Philosopher, and to Lucius the Philosopher, the natural son of Cæsar, and the adopted son of Pius, a lover of learning, and to the sacred Senate, with the whole People of the Romans, I, Justin, the son of Priscus and grandson of Bacchius, natives of Flavia Neapolis in Palestine, present this address and petition in behalf of those of all nations who are unjustly hated and wantonly abused, myself being one of them.
… What sober-minded man, then, will not acknowledge that we are not atheists, worshipping as we do the Maker of this universe, and declaring, as we have been taught, that He has no need of streams of blood and libations and incense; whom we praise to the utmost of our power by the exercise of prayer and thanksgiving for all things wherewith we are supplied, as we have been taught that the only honour that is worthy of Him is not to consume by fire what He has brought into being for our sustenance, but to use it for ourselves and those who need, and with gratitude to Him to offer thanks by invocations and hymns for our creation, and for all the means of health, and for the various qualities of the different kinds of things, and for the changes of the seasons; and to present before Him petitions for our existing again in incorruption through faith in Him. Our teacher of these things is Jesus Christ, who also was born for this purpose, and was crucified under Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judæa, in the times of Tiberius Cæsar; and that we reasonably worship Him, having learned that He is the Son of the true God Himself, and holding Him in the second place, and the prophetic Spirit in the third, we will prove. For they proclaim our madness to consist in this, that we give to a crucified man a place second to the unchangeable and eternal God, the Creator of all; for they do not discern the mystery that is herein, to which, as we make it plain to you, we pray you to give heed.
… And everywhere we, more readily than all men, endeavour to pay to those appointed by you the taxes both ordinary and extraordinary, as we have been taught by Him; for at that time some came to Him and asked Him, if one ought to pay tribute to Cæsar; and He answered, “Tell Me, whose image does the coin bear?” And they said, “Cæsar’s.” And again He answered them, “Render therefore to Cæsar the things that are Cæsar’s, and to God the things that are God’s” [Matthew 22:17–21]. Whence to God alone we render worship, but in other things we gladly serve you, acknowledging you as kings and rulers of men, and praying that with your kingly power you be found to possess also sound judgment. But if you pay no regard to our prayers and frank explanations, we shall suffer no loss, since we believe (or rather, indeed, are persuaded) that every man will suffer punishment in eternal fire according to the merit of his deed, and will render account according to the power he has received from God, as Christ intimated when He said, “To whom God has given more, of him shall more be required” [Luke 12:48].
(Justin Martyr, First Apology, 1, 13 & 17, translated by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Available at http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.viii.ii.i.html).
A hundred years after the Resurrection, Christianity had (in spite of persecution) spread throughout the Roman Empire, including the Middle East, North Africa, and Europe. In what is now Turkey, Papias was Bishop of Hierapolis, and Polycarp was Bishop of Smyrna. Telesphorus was Bishop of Rome, and Eumenes was Bishop of Alexandria in Egypt. As the Didache shows, Christians were already characterised by the Lord’s Prayer, and by baptism “in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.”
The writings of what later came to be called the New Testament had been completed and disseminated; as is shown by quotes and references to the four Gospels, Acts, the Pauline Epistles, I John, I Peter, and Revelation in the writings of Papias, Polycarp, Ignatius, Clement, and Justin. Indeed, there is direct physical evidence for this: the oldest papyrus fragment of John’s Gospel from Egypt has been dated to about 140 (with more complete manuscripts from the Third Century):
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| Papyrus Fragment of John’s Gospel © John Rylands Library, Manchester |
In 130, Hadrian was Emperor, and had just finished his famous wall across Britain. He also rebuilt Jerusalem as the Roman city of Colonia Aelia Capitolina (with a shrine to Jupiter on the site of the destroyed Temple). This sparked another Jewish revolt from 132 to 135, led by Simon bar Kochba, and ending with Jews being banned from Jerusalem. The Church in Jerusalem continued, but from this time was composed of non-Jewish Christians.
In about 130, Irenaeus (whose name means “peaceable”) was born. He had known Polycarp as a young man, then studied at Rome, and became a presbyter at Lyons (in what is now France). Irenaeus was perhaps the greatest theologian of the Second Century, and his Against Heresies (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103.htm) and Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching have survived. We have already quoted Irenaeus on the Gospels, but here is more of his theology, which speaks mostly of Jesus:
As it has been clearly demonstrated that the Word, who existed in the beginning with God, by whom all things were made, who was also always present with mankind, was in these last days, according to the time appointed by the Father, united to His own workmanship, inasmuch as He became a man liable to suffering, [it follows] that every objection is set aside of those who say, “If our Lord was born at that time, Christ had therefore no previous existence.” For I have shown that the Son of God did not then begin to exist, being with the Father from the beginning; but when He became incarnate, and was made man, He commenced afresh the long line of human beings, and furnished us, in a brief, comprehensive manner, with salvation; so that what we had lost in Adam – namely, to be according to the image and likeness of God – that we might recover in Christ Jesus.
(Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Book 3, Chapter 18: http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103318.htm).
Irenaeus lived up to his name by acting as a peacemaker within the Church. The most notable occasion was in 190 when Victor, the Bishop of Rome, tried to excommunicate the Christians of Asia Minor (yes, all of them), because they celebrated Easter on the Jewish Passover instead of on the Sunday after. They were sometimes called Quartodecimans (fourteeners), because the Passover occurs on 14 Nisan in the Jewish calendar. Irenaeus helped to avoid conflict, and eventually (after a few centuries) the Church reached a consensus on this issue, by deciding that the Church at Alexandria would decide when Easter would be held. The formula that Alexandria would use was that Easter would be celebrated on the first Sunday after the first full moon following the spring equinox (a definition that required some astronomical expertise to use). Irenaeus died in about 200.
The Second Century saw the rise of the religion known as Gnosticism. Incorporating elements of Platonism, Christianity, and Persian religions, the Gnostics taught that spirit was good and matter was evil.
The world, they said, was created by a “Demiurge” (essentially the Devil), whom they identified with the God of the Old Testament. In the process of this wrongful creation, sparks of the divine Spirit were trapped in human bodies. The goal of life was for those sparks to be reunited with the divine Spirit. However, this could be achieved merely by acquiring the requisite esoteric knowledge (gnosis).
Because they believed that matter was evil and spirit good, the Gnostics emphasised asceticism (since enjoying the world is evil), while at the same time de-emphasising sin (since merely existing in a physical body is already evil, moral behaviour has no benefit, and may even be negative). Their attitude toward the physical world is illustrated in the Gnostic Acts of Thomas, written in the Third Century. This document states that sexual activity and having children are evil, even within marriage (the following words are addressed to a new bride):
… if ye abstain from this foul intercourse, ye become holy temples, pure, being quit of impulses and pains, seen and unseen, and ye will acquire no cares of life or of children, whose end is destruction: and if indeed ye get many children, for their sakes ye become grasping and covetous, stripping orphans and overreaching widows, and by so doing subject yourselves to grievous punishments. For the more part of children become useless oppressed of devils, some openly and some invisibly, for they become either lunatic or half withered or blind or deaf or dumb or paralytic or foolish; and if they be sound, again they will be vain, doing useless or abominable acts, for they will be caught either in adultery or murder or theft or fornication, and by all these will ye be afflicted. But if ye be persuaded and keep your souls chaste before God, there will come unto you living children whom these blemishes touch not, and ye shall be without care, leading a tranquil life without grief or anxiety, looking to receive that incorruptible and true marriage, and ye shall be therein groomsmen entering into that bride-chamber which is full of immortality and light.
(Acts of Thomas, translated by M. R. James, http://www.gnosis.org/library/actthom.htm).
In 144, the leading Gnostic Marcion was excommunicated. Many Christian theologians (including Justin, Irenaeus, and Tertullian) wrote criticisms of Gnostic teaching, for example:
Christians identified Jesus with the Creator:
In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. He was with God in the beginning. Through him all things were made; without him nothing was made that has been made. In him was life, and that life was the light of men. The light shines in the darkness, but the darkness has not understood it. (John 1:1–5)
Christians could therefore not possibly accept the idea of the world being created by the Devil. Conversely, Gnostics could not accept the Christian Gospels (Marcion accepted some of Paul’s Epistles and a cut-down version of Luke’s Gospel). During the Second Century, the Gnostics filled this void by writing “Gospels” of their own, including the so-called “Gospel of Thomas” (http://www.gnosis.org/naghamm/gthlamb.html) and “Gospel of Mary” (http://www.gnosis.org/library/marygosp.htm). As Eusebius points out, none of these “Gospels” was ever used by any writer in the mainstream Christian Church: from the beginning, the Church only recognised four Gospels.
The details of Gnostic teaching are difficult to give, since they were very complex, mostly secret, and differed from teacher to teacher and place to place. In particular, Gnostics acknowledged a female spiritual entity called Sophia or Achamoth, whose role is variously described in either positive and negative terms. Our knowledge of the Gnostics is mostly based on contemporary Christian criticisms of Gnosticism, such as that of Irenaeus. However, Gnosticism in various forms was to reappear at irregular intervals: indeed, it has become popular again today.
The 150s saw the death of Polycarp, perhaps the most famous post-Apostolic martyr. Polycarp was born in about 69 (or perhaps earlier), and was proud of having been a student of the Apostle John. Irenaeus (who was Polycarp’s student) describes this in a letter to Florinus (quoted by Eusebius, 5:20) and in his Against Heresies:
But Polycarp also was not only instructed by apostles, and conversed with many who had seen Christ, but was also, by apostles in Asia, appointed bishop of the Church in Smyrna, whom I also saw in my early youth, for he tarried [on earth] a very long time, and, when a very old man, gloriously and most nobly suffering martyrdom, departed this life, having always taught the things which he had learned from the apostles, and which the Church has handed down, and which alone are true. To these things all the Asiatic Churches testify, as do also those men who have succeeded Polycarp down to the present time.
(Irenaeus, Against Heresies, Book 3, Chapter 3: http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0103303.htm).
Ignatius had written Polycarp a letter on his way to be thrown to the lions in 107, and Polycarp had written a letter of his own to the Philippians (perhaps as a covering letter for one by Ignatius) from which we have already quoted (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0136.htm). Polycarp was not a great theologian, but he was a simple devout Christian, and was Bishop of the city of Smyrna for at least 50 years.
On 23 February of the year 155 (or perhaps 22 February of 156) the Smyrnaeans were entertaining themselves in the circus by throwing some Christians to the lions. Not being satisfied with this (and perhaps prompted by hostile Jews), they called out to have Polycarp brought in. The Governor told him that he would be released if he swore an oath to Caesar and reviled Christ, but Polycarp replied in unforgettable words: “Eighty and six years have I served Him, and He never did me any injury: how then can I blaspheme my King and my Saviour?”
This means that Polycarp was at least 86 years old (and probably that he had been baptised as a child). Polycarp would often have read out in church the section from Revelation addressed to Smyrna:
And unto the angel of the church in Smyrna write; These things saith the First and the Last, which was dead, and is alive:
I know thy works, and tribulation, and poverty, (but thou art rich) and I know the blasphemy of them which say they are Jews, and are not, but are the synagogue of Satan. Fear none of those things which thou shalt suffer: behold, the devil shall cast some of you into prison, that ye may be tried; and ye shall have tribulation ten days: be thou faithful unto death, and I will give thee a crown of life.
He that hath an ear, let him hear what the Spirit saith unto the churches; He that overcometh shall not be hurt of the second death. (Revelation 2:8–11, King James Version)
This was Polycarp’s chance to be “faithful unto death.” Since he had scoffed at wild animals, Polycarp was burnt alive. His last prayer was perhaps inspired by the prayer he would have given every week at Communion:
“O Lord God Almighty, the Father of thy beloved and blessed Son Jesus Christ, by whom we have received the knowledge of Thee, the God of angels and powers, and of every creature, and of the whole race of the righteous who live before thee, I give Thee thanks that Thou hast counted me, worthy of this day and this hour, that I should have a part in the number of Thy martyrs, in the cup of thy Christ, to the resurrection of eternal life, both of soul and body, through the incorruption [imparted] by the Holy Ghost. Among whom may I be accepted this day before Thee as a fat and acceptable sacrifice, according as Thou, the ever-truthful God, hast fore-ordained, hast revealed beforehand to me, and now hast fulfilled. Wherefore also I praise Thee for all things, I bless Thee, I glorify Thee, along with the everlasting and heavenly Jesus Christ, Thy beloved Son, with whom, to Thee, and the Holy Ghost, be glory both now and to all coming ages. Amen.”
(Martyrdom of Polycarp, 14, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0102.htm).
The narrator of this martyrdom echoes Revelation 2:10 in his summary:
This, then, is the account of the blessed Polycarp, who, being the twelfth that was martyred in Smyrna (reckoning those also of Philadelphia), yet occupies a place of his own in the memory of all men, insomuch that he is everywhere spoken of by the heathen themselves. He was not merely an illustrious teacher, but also a pre-eminent martyr, whose martyrdom all desire to imitate, as having been altogether consistent with the Gospel of Christ. For, having through patience overcome the unjust governor, and thus acquired the crown of immortality, he now, with the apostles and all the righteous [in heaven], rejoicingly glorifies God, even the Father, and blesses our Lord Jesus Christ, the Saviour of our souls, the Governor of our bodies, and the Shepherd of the Catholic Church throughout the world.
(Martyrdom of Polycarp, 19, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0102.htm).
The uncertainty in the year is because the narrator refuses to give a dating with respect to an Emperor, because Jesus is the “King for ever”:
Now, the blessed Polycarp suffered martyrdom on the second day of the month Xanthicus just begun, the seventh day before the Kalends of May, on the great Sabbath, at the eighth hour. He was taken by Herod, Philip the Trallian being high priest, Statius Quadratus being proconsul, but Jesus Christ being King for ever, to whom be glory, honour, majesty, and an everlasting throne, from generation to generation. Amen.
(Martyrdom of Polycarp, 21, http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0102.htm).
Most of the account of the martyrdom is replicated by Eusebius, and a more modern translation of the account is also provided in the Penguin Classics edition of Early Christian Writings. Polycarp remains an inspiration to us all.
The 160s saw the death of Justin Martyr. In 165, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, he was killed for refusing to sacrifice to the Roman gods. When asked “do you suppose, then, that you will ascend into heaven to receive some recompense?” he replied “I do not suppose it, but I know it, and am fully persuaded of it.”
The 150s, 160s, and 170s also saw the rise of a charismatic movement in Phrygia (the province which was home to the Colossian and Laodicean churches). The movement was led by a man named Montanus, and his followers were known as Montanists or Cataphrygians. He emphasised prophecy, claiming to be the voice of the Holy Spirit, as did the major prophetesses of the movement, Maximilla and Priscilla.
Revelation 3:16 described the Laodiceans as lukewarm. This was certainly not true of the Montanists, who were strictly ascetic, expecting Christ to return at any moment (to Phrygia, naturally). They highly valued fasting and virginity, and did not allow widows to remarry. They valued martyrdom so highly as to forbid fleeing from persecution.
The great danger of the movement, however, was that the prophecies they claimed to have were viewed as more authoritative than the Apostles. They were not the last Christians to go down that road (see, for example, Enthusiasm by Ronald Knox), but it was to prove a road that led to trouble every time. Many bishops saw the danger and strongly opposed the Montanists. Others, like Irenaeus, recognised the error, but urged a gentler approach. After a few centuries, the Montanists either vanished, or were absorbed back into the Church.
The year 177, during the reign of Marcus Aurelius, saw a massive persecution in Lyons, in what is now France. Irenaeus of Lyons was away at the time, on a mission to urge the Bishop of Rome to be lenient to the Montanists. Eusebius quotes the record of martyrdom at length. The large number of Christians tortured and executed included Blandina, a slave woman:
But the whole wrath of the populace, and governor, and soldiers was aroused exceedingly against Sanctus, the deacon from Vienne, and Maturus, a late convert, yet a noble combatant, and against Attalus, a native of Pergamos where he had always been a pillar and foundation, and Blandina, through whom Christ showed that things which appear mean and obscure and despicable to men are with God of great glory [I Corinthians 1:27,28], through love toward him manifested in power, and not boasting in appearance.
For while we all trembled, and her earthly mistress, who was herself also one of the witnesses, feared that on account of the weakness of her body, she would be unable to make bold confession, Blandina was filled with such power as to be delivered and raised above those who were torturing her by turns from morning till evening in every manner, so that they acknowledged that they were conquered, and could do nothing more to her. And they were astonished at her endurance, as her entire body was mangled and broken; and they testified that one of these forms of torture was sufficient to destroy life, not to speak of so many and so great sufferings.
But the blessed woman, like a noble athlete, renewed her strength in her confession; and her comfort and recreation and relief from the pain of her sufferings was in exclaiming, ‘I am a Christian, and there is nothing vile done by us.’
… But Blandina was suspended on a stake, and exposed to be devoured by the wild beasts who should attack her. And because she appeared as if hanging on a cross, and because of her earnest prayers, she inspired the combatants with great zeal. For they looked on her in her conflict, and beheld with their outward eyes, in the form of their sister, him who was crucified for them, that he might persuade those who believe on him, that every one who suffers for the glory of Christ has fellowship always with the living God.
As none of the wild beasts at that time touched her, she was taken down from the stake, and cast again into prison. She was preserved thus for another contest, that, being victorious in more conflicts, she might make the punishment of the crooked serpent irrevocable [Isaiah 27:1]; and, though small and weak and despised, yet clothed with Christ [Galatians 3:27] the mighty and conquering Athlete, she might arouse the zeal of the brethren, and, having overcome the adversary many times might receive, through her conflict, the crown incorruptible.
… After all these, on the last day of the contests, Blandina was again brought in, with Ponticus, a boy about fifteen years old. They had been brought every day to witness the sufferings of the government and the others, and had been pressed to swear by the idols. But because they remained steadfast and despised them, the multitude became furious, so that they had no compassion for the youth of the boy nor respect for the sex of the woman.
Therefore they exposed them to all the terrible sufferings and took them through the entire round of torture, repeatedly urging them to swear, but being unable to effect this; for Ponticus, encouraged by his sister so that even the heathen could see that she was confirming and strengthening him, having nobly endured every torture, gave up the ghost.
But the blessed Blandina, last of all, having, as a noble mother, encouraged her children and sent them before her victorious to the King, endured herself all their conflicts and hastened after them, glad and rejoicing in her departure as if called to a marriage supper [Revelation 19:9], rather than cast to wild beasts.
(Eusebius, The History of the Church, translated by the Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Book 5, Chapter 1 (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.x.ii.html). The passage also appears on pages 141–147 of the Penguin Classics edition).
Pothinus, the aged Bishop was also killed:
The blessed Pothinus, who had been entrusted with the bishopric of Lyons, was dragged to the judgment seat. He was more than ninety years of age, and very infirm, scarcely indeed able to breathe because of physical weakness; but he was strengthened by spiritual zeal through his earnest desire for martyrdom. Though his body was worn out by old age and disease, his life was preserved that Christ might triumph in it.
When he was brought by the soldiers to the tribunal, accompanied by the civil magistrates and a multitude who shouted against him in every manner as if he were Christ himself, he bore noble witness [I Timothy 6:13].
Being asked by the governor, Who was the God of the Christians, he replied, ‘If thou art worthy, thou shalt know.’ Then he was dragged away harshly, and received blows of every kind. Those near him struck him with their hands and feet, regardless of his age; and those at a distance hurled at him whatever they could seize; all of them thinking that they would be guilty of great wickedness and impiety if any possible abuse were omitted. For thus they thought to avenge their own deities. Scarcely able to breathe, he was cast into prison and died after two days.
(Eusebius, The History of the Church, translated by the Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Book 5, Chapter 1 (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.x.ii.html). The passage also appears on page 143 of the Penguin Classics edition).
Irenaeus consequently took over the role of Bishop when he returned to Lyons.
Around the 180s, the Muratorian Canon (http://www.bible-researcher.com/muratorian.html) was written (a copy was discovered by Lodovico Muratori in 1740 in a library in Milan, hence the name). The Muratorian Canon is the first explicit catalogue of New Testament books. This is how it describes the Pauline Epistles:
As to the epistles of Paul, again, to those who will understand the matter, they indicate of themselves what they are, and from what place or with what object they were directed. He wrote first of all, and at considerable length, to the Corinthians, to check the schism of heresy; and then to the Galatians, to forbid circumcision; and then to the Romans on the rule of the Old Testament Scriptures, and also to show them that Christ is the first object in these – which it is needful for us to discuss severally, as the blessed Apostle Paul, following the rule of his predecessor John, writes to no more than seven churches by name, in this order: the first to the Corinthians, the second to the Ephesians, the third to the Philippians, the fourth to the Colossians, the fifth to the Galatians, the sixth to the Thessalonians, the seventh to the Romans. Moreover, though he writes twice to the Corinthians and Thessalonians for their correction, it is yet shown i.e., by this sevenfold writing-that there is one Church spread abroad through the whole world. And John too, indeed, in the Apocalypse, although he writes only to seven churches, yet addresses all. He wrote, besides these, one to Philemon, and one to Titus, and two to Timothy, in simple personal affection and love indeed; but yet these are hallowed in the esteem of the Catholic Church, and in the regulation of ecclesiastical discipline. There are also in circulation one to the Laodiceans, and another to the Alexandrians, forged under the name of Paul, and addressed against the heresy of Marcion; and there are also several others which cannot be received into the Catholic Church, for it is not suitable for gall to be mingled with honey.
(Muratorian Canon, translated by the Rev. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson, quoted in http://www.whartono.ca/NTCanon.pdf).
From the earliest times, about 85% of the New Testament was agreed on by all Christians: the four Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline Epistles. The remaining books were debated, at least to some extent, and there were a few other candidates for possible inclusion. In the table below, ‘NS’ denotes writings that were viewed as Christian, but not as Scripture, and ‘?’ denotes books the status of which was debated:
| Book | Muratorian Canon (Rome, 180) | Tertullian (Carthage, 200) | Origen (Alexandria, 230) | Eusebius (Caesaria, 325) | Other Supporters |
| Hebrews | Scripture | ? | ? | Clement of Alexandria | |
| Revelation | Scripture | Scripture | Scripture | ? | Justin, Irenaeus |
| I Peter | Scripture | Scripture | Scripture | Polycarp, Irenaeus | |
| II Peter | ? | ? | | ||
| I John | Scripture | Scripture | Scripture | Scripture | Polycarp, Irenaeus |
| II John | Scripture | ? | ? | Clement of Alexandria | |
| III John | ? | ? | | ||
| James | ? | ? | | ||
| Jude | Scripture | Scripture | ? | ? | Clement of Alexandria |
| Didache | ? | NS | Clement of Alexandria | ||
| Shepherd of Hermas (2nd Century) | NS | NS | ? | NS | Codex Sinaiticus |
| Epistle of Barnabas (2nd Century) | ? | NS | Codex Sinaiticus | ||
| Apocalypse of Peter (2nd Century) | ? | NS | Clement of Alexandria |
The Codex Sinaiticus is the oldest complete manuscript of the Bible, and includes the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistle of Barnabas. It has been dated to the Fourth Century (there are also Third Century papyrus versions of the New Testament which have many pages missing). The Codex Sinaiticus was found in 1859 in the Monastery of St Catherine on Mount Sinai, and is written on vellum made from antelope skins:
 |
| Codex Sinaiticus |
Of course, non-Christian (e.g. Gnostic) “Gospels” and “Acts” were not accepted by any Christians, as early Christian writers (such as the author of the Muratorian Canon) make clear. But how was the debate about Christian writings settled?
One factor was whether a book was by an Apostle (counting Paul as the Apostle to the Gentiles), or by a close associate of an Apostle (such as Mark or Luke). In the end, all the Second Century Christian writings were excluded from the New Testament, and the debate about Hebrews, Revelation, and II Peter mostly concerned the question of their Apostolic authorship.
The modern New Testament list was first articulated by Athanasius in 367, and confirmed by later Church Councils. It is identical with Eusebius’ list, if all his question marks are treated generously. Martin Luther and the early Lutheran theologians resurrected some of Eusebius’ question marks, but the New Testament as articulated by Athanasius in 367 has had almost universal Christian agreement ever since.
We have already mentioned Clement of Alexandria, the Egyptian theologian and head of the school for Christian instruction there. His writings, mostly from the 190s, include Who is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved? (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0207.htm), a commentary on Mark 10:17–31:
Those who bestow laudatory addresses on the rich appear to me to be rightly judged not only flatterers and base, in vehemently pretending that things which are disagreeable give them pleasure, but also godless and treacherous; godless, because neglecting to praise and glorify God, who is alone perfect and good, “of whom are all things, and by whom are all things, and for whom are all things” [Romans 11:36], they invest with divine honours men wallowing in an execrable and abominable life, and, what is the principal thing, liable on this account to the judgment of God; and treacherous, because, although wealth is of itself sufficient to puff up and corrupt the souls of its possessors, and to turn them from the path by which salvation is to be attained, they stupefy them still more, by inflating the minds of the rich with the pleasures of extravagant praises, and by making them utterly despise all things except wealth, on account of which they are admired; bringing, as the saying is, fire to fire, pouring pride on pride, and adding conceit to wealth, a heavier burden to that which by nature is a weight, from which somewhat ought rather to be removed and taken away as being a dangerous and deadly disease.
… For there is nothing like listening again to the very same statements, which till now in the Gospels were distressing you, hearing them as you did without examination, and erroneously through puerility: “And going forth into the way, one approached and kneeled, saying, Good Master, what good thing shall I do that I may inherit everlasting life? And Jesus saith, Why callest thou Me good? There is none good but one, that is, God. Thou knowest the commandments. Do not commit adultery, Do not kill, Do not steal, Do not bear false witness, Defraud not, Honour thy father and thy mother. And he answering saith to Him, All these have I observed. And Jesus, looking upon him, loved him, and said, One thing thou lackest. If thou wouldest be perfect, sell what thou hast and give to the poor, and thou shall have treasure in heaven: and come, follow Me. And he was sad at that saying, and went away grieved: for he was rich, having great possessions. And Jesus looked round about, and saith to His disciples, How hardly shall they that have riches enter into the kingdom of God! And the disciples were astonished at His words. But Jesus answereth again, and saith unto them, Children, how hard is it for them that trust in riches to enter into the kingdom of God! More easily shall a camel enter through the eye of a needle than a rich man into the kingdom of God. And they were astonished out of measure, and said, Who then can be saved? bend He, looking upon them, said, What is impossible with men is possible with God. For with God all things are possible. Peter began to say to Him, Lo, we have left all and followed Thee. And Jesus answered and said, Verily I say unto you, Whosoever shall leave what is his own, parents, and brethren, and possessions, for My sake and the Gospel’s, shall receive an hundred-fold now in this world, lands, and possessions, and house, and brethren, with persecutions; and in the world to come is life everlasting. But many that are first shall be last, and the last first” [Mark 10:17–31].
These things are written in the Gospel according to Mark; and in all the rest correspondingly; although perchance the expressions vary slightly in each, yet all show identical agreement in meaning. But well knowing that the Saviour teaches nothing in a merely human way, but teaches all things to His own with divine and mystic wisdom, we must not listen to His utterances carnally; but with due investigation and intelligence must search out and learn the meaning hidden in them.
… Jesus, accordingly, does not charge him with not having fulfilled all things out of the law, but loves him, and fondly welcomes his obedience in what he had learned; but says that he is not perfect as respects eternal life, in as much as he had not fulfilled what is perfect, and that he is a doer indeed of the law, but idle at the true life. Those things, indeed, are good. Who denies it? For “the commandment is holy” [Romans 7:12], as far as a sort of training with fear and preparatory discipline goes, leading as it did to the culmination of legislation and to grace [Galatians 3:24]. But Christ is the fulfilment “of the law for righteousness to every one that believeth” [Romans 10:4]; and not as a slave making slaves, but sons, and brethren, and fellow-heirs, who perform the Father’s will.
“If thou wilt be perfect” [Matthew 19:21]. Consequently he was not yet perfect. For nothing is more perfect than what is perfect. And divinely the expression “if thou wilt” showed the self-determination of the soul holding converse with Him. For choice depended on the man as being free; but the gift on God as the Lord. And He gives to those who are willing and are exceedingly earnest, and ask, that so their salvation may become their own. For God compels not (for compulsion is repugnant to God), but supplies to those who seek, and bestows on those who ask, and opens to those who knock. If thou wilt, then, if thou really wiliest, and art not deceiving thyself, acquire what thou lackest. One thing is lacking thee – the one thing which abides, the good, that which is now above the law, which the law gives not, which the law contains not, which is the prerogative of those who live.
… Riches, then, which benefit also our neighbours, are not to be thrown away. For they are possessions, in as much as they are possessed, and goods, in as much as they are useful and provided by God for the use of men; and they lie to our hand, and are put under our power, as material and instruments which are for good use to those who know the instrument. If you use it skilfully, it is skilful; if you are deficient in skill, it is affected by your want of skill, being itself destitute of blame. Such an instrument is wealth. Are you able to make a right use of it? It is subservient to righteousness. Does one make a wrong use of it? It is, on the other hand, a minister of wrong. For its nature is to be subservient, not to rule.
… So that [the expression] rich men that shall with difficulty enter into the kingdom, is to be apprehended in a scholarly way, not awkwardly, or rustically, or carnally. For if the expression is used thus, salvation does not depend on external things, whether they be many or few, small or great, or illustrious or obscure, or esteemed or disesteemed; but on the virtue of the soul, on faith, and hope, and love, and brotherliness, and knowledge, and meekness, and humility, and truth, the reward of which is salvation.
… But the Lord replies, “Because what is impossible with men is possible with God” [Mark 10:27]. This again is full of great wisdom. For a man by himself working and toiling at freedom from passion achieves nothing. But if he plainly shows himself very desirous and earnest about this, he attains it by the addition of the power of God. For God conspires with willing souls. But if they abandon their eagerness, the spirit which is bestowed by God is also restrained.
… But to him who directs his eye to salvation and desires it, and asks with boldness and vehemence for its bestowal, the good Father who is in heaven will give the true purification and the changeless life. To whom, by His Son Jesus Christ, the Lord of the living and dead, and by the Holy Spirit, be glory, honour, power, eternal majesty, both now and ever, from generation to generation, and from eternity to eternity. Amen.
(Clement of Alexandria, Who is the Rich Man That Shall Be Saved?, translated by William Wilson, http://www.ccel.org/fathers2/ANF-02/anf02-86.htm).
In this exposition, we see the tension between two important theological doctrines: that of human free will (“If thou wilt”), and the power of God (“what is impossible with men is possible with God”). Integrating these two truths has been one of the main areas of theological difficulty ever since, and the unification expressed by Clement (“God conspires with willing souls”) would not be accepted by all Christians.
Severe persecution of Alexandria in the year 202 forced Clement to leave, and he died in about 215.
The second great African theologian of the time was Tertullian, who was born in Carthage (in what is now Tunisia) in 160. His father was a centurion in the army, and Tertullian himself seems to have been a lawyer. He converted to Christianity in 197, and in the following years produced an enormous collection of theological works. These were all the more significant because he was the first major Christian writer in the Latin language (rather than Greek). He introduced theological terms like trinitas (Trinity), sacramentum (sacrament), and satisfacere (satisfaction). His extant works include:
In later life, Tertullian became increasingly strict, and in about 210 he left the Church and became a Montanist. He died in 220.
Clement’s replacement in Alexandria was Origen, who was born in 185, and so was only seventeen during the persecution of 202. His father was imprisoned at that time (Origen would have joined him voluntarily, but his mother prevented him, by hiding his clothes). Later his father was executed, and the family’s possessions confiscated, leaving Origen to support his mother and six younger brothers. He did this by teaching, and it was presumably partly compassion and partly recognition of his talent that led the Bishop to give Origen the head-of-school position vacated by Clement.
Origen was incredibly prolific: counting letters, he seems to have produced thousands of writings, mostly lost. We do, however, have his Commentaries on Matthew (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/1016.htm) and John (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/101501.htm):
… “In the beginning was the Word” [John 1:1]. It is not only the Greeks who consider the word “beginning” to have many meanings. Let any one collect the Scripture passages in which the word occurs, and with a view to an accurate interpretation of it note what it stands for in each passage, and he will find that the word has many meanings in sacred discourse also. We speak of a beginning in reference to a transition. Here it has to do with a road and with length. This appears in the saying: “The beginning of a good way is to do justice” [Proverbs 16:5, Septuagint]. For since the good way is long, there have first to be considered in reference to it the question connected with action, and this side is presented in the words “to do justice;” the contemplative side comes up for consideration afterwards. In the latter the end of it comes to rest at last in the so-called restoration of all things, since no enemy is left them to fight against, if that be true which is said: “For He must reign until He have placed His enemies under His feet. But the last enemy to be destroyed is death” [I Corinthians 15:25,26]. For then but one activity will be left for those who have come to God on account of His word which is with Him, that, namely, of knowing God, so that, being found by the knowledge of the Father, they may all be His Son, as now no one but the Son knows the Father. For should any one enquire carefully at what time those are to know the Father to whom He who knows the Father reveals Him, and should he consider how a man now sees only through a glass and in a riddle, never having learned to know as he ought to know, he would be justified in saying that no one, no apostle even, and no prophet had known the Father, but when he became one with Him as a son and a father are one. And if any one says that it is a digression which has led us to this point, our consideration of that one meaning of the word beginning, we must show that the digression is necessary and useful for the end we have in view. For if we speak of a beginning in the case of a transition, and of a way and its length, and if we are told that the beginning of a good way is to do justice, then it concerns us to know in what manner every good way has for its beginning to do justice, and how after such beginning it arrives at contemplation, and in what manner it thus arrives at contemplation. …
(Origen, Commentary on the Gospel of John, Book 1: http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/101501.htm).
Origen left Alexandria in 231 because of a disagreement with the Bishop, and died in 254, during the persecution initiated by the Emperor Decius.
In 553, the teachings of Origen’s more misguided followers were condemned (see http://www.copticchurch.net/topics/patrology/schoolofalex2/chapter04.html). They included the bizarre observation that:
and so (obviously) we will be resurrected in spherical bodies. One can only wonder why it was necessary to officially condemn that opinion.
From the time that Paul preached the Gospel, the Church contained slaves. Pliny’s letter from the 110s makes reference to this. The Church made no attempt to begin a revolution to free slaves. This had been attempted once before, by Spartacus in 73 BC, and failed, with 6000 slaves crucified along the road south from Rome.
The letters of Paul state clearly that in the Church there is no distinction between slave and free (Colossian 3:11, Galatians 3:28). On the other hand, Paul also says clearly that slaves should obey their masters until their condition changes (Ephesians 6:5, Colossian 3:22, I Corinthians 7:21). In the case of Onesimus, a runaway slave, Paul eventually sends him back to Philemon, his Christian master, with a letter that forms part of the New Testament. This letter includes an extremely strong hint that Onesimus should be freed, and an indication that Paul would be visiting in person to ensure this:
Therefore, although in Christ I could be bold and order you to do what you ought to do, yet I appeal to you on the basis of love. I then, as Paul – an old man and now also a prisoner of Christ Jesus – I appeal to you for my son Onesimus, who became my son while I was in chains.
… But I did not want to do anything without your consent, so that any favor you do will be spontaneous and not forced. Perhaps the reason he was separated from you for a little while was that you might have him back for good – no longer as a slave, but better than a slave, as a dear brother. He is very dear to me but even dearer to you, both as a man and as a brother in the Lord.
… And one thing more: Prepare a guest room for me, because I hope to be restored to you in answer to your prayers. (Philemon 8–10, 14–16, 22)
In practice, Christians would often save up money in order to buy the freedom of their brothers and sisters who were slaves, although the limited financial resources of most Christians meant that not all slaves could be freed this way. Some Christians would go so far as to sell themselves into slavery “in order that they might ransom others” (Clement, Epistle to the Corinthians, http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/anf01.ii.ii.lv.html).
Callistus was a Christian slave who ran a bank for his (Christian) master. Unfortunately, through mismanagement, he lost all the money. He was sentenced to work in the mines of Sardinia, but Marcia, the concubine of the Emperor Commodus, eventually arranged his release. Later, Callistus became a deacon, and in 217, he became Bishop of Rome. In this capacity, he worked to allow Christian slaves and free people to marry within the Church, although such marriages were not legal under Roman law.
Callistus also disagreed with Tertullian on whether Christians who committed adultery could ever be forgiven. Tertullian said never, while Callistus said yes (after repentance and due penance). He died in 222.
Two hundred years after the Resurrection, Christianity had grown in spite of further persecution. Urban was Bishop of Rome, but died on 22 August of 230, and was replaced by Pontian. Demetrius had been Bishop of Alexandria since 189, and Origen was teaching at the school for Christian instruction there. Alexander was Bishop of Jerusalem, where he had established a library.
Since the 130s, extensive theological writings by Justin, Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Origen, and Tertullian had articulated the orthodox Christian point of view, in the face of Gnosticism and heretical forms of Christianity. The exact composition of the New Testament was not yet fixed: all Christians agreed on the four Gospels, Acts, and the Pauline Epistles, and most Christians also agreed on Hebrews, Revelation, I Peter, I John, and Jude. There was less agreement on II Peter, II John, III John, and James, and some Christians were treating Second Century writings such as the Epistle of Barnabas as Scripture.
Christian Art was beginning to appear. Eusebius describes a bronze statue of the woman cured of a haemorrhage by Jesus (Mark 5:24–34). It was located in Caesaria, and was already old when he was living there. He also describes Christian paintings (although his letters show that he personally disapproved of pictures or statues of Christ):
For they say that the woman with an issue of blood, who, as we learn from the sacred Gospel [Mark 5:24–34], received from our Saviour deliverance from her affliction, came from this place, and that her house is shown in the city, and that remarkable memorials of the kindness of the Saviour to her remain there. For there stands upon an elevated stone, by the gates of her house, a brazen image of a woman kneeling, with her hands stretched out, as if she were praying. Opposite this is another upright image of a man, made of the same material, clothed decently in a double cloak, and extending his hand toward the woman. At his feet, beside the statue itself, is a certain strange plant, which climbs up to the hem of the brazen cloak, and is a remedy for all kinds of diseases. They say that this statue is an image of Jesus. It has remained to our day, so that we ourselves also saw it when we were staying in the city. Nor is it strange that those of the Gentiles who, of old, were benefited by our Saviour, should have done such things, since we have learned also that the likenesses of his apostles Paul and Peter, and of Christ himself, are preserved in paintings, the ancients being accustomed, as it is likely, according to a habit of the Gentiles, to pay this kind of honor indiscriminately to those regarded by them as deliverers.
(Eusebius, The History of the Church, translated by the Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Book 7, Chapter 18 (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.xii.xix.html). The passage also appears on page 234 of the Penguin Classics edition).
Dating from about 230 is a Christian house-church at Dura Europos, Syria:
 |
 |
| Plan of renovations (creating worship room and baptistery) |
Reconstructed baptistery |
In contrast to the Church, the Roman Empire of the 230s was beginning to show signs of trouble. Corruption was on the increase, and barbarians were threatening to cross the Rhine and Danube Rivers. Soldiers were choosing new Emperors who bribed them, and then killing the Emperors when the faltering economy could not support more bribes. Christians of the time did not know it, but in less than a century, the Church was to take over the Empire.
In 249 Decius became Emperor. He was hostile to Christianity, and wished to restore the Roman Empire of the past. In 250 he issued an edict that everyone in the Roman Empire had to sacrifice to the Roman gods and obtain a certificate to prove that they had done so. This gave Christians four options:
When persecution ceased temporarily, Christians in the last two categories were required to undergo lengthy periods of penance before they would be readmitted to Communion.
Decius died in 251, but in 253 Valerian became Emperor. He banned Christian worship in 257, and proclaimed the death penalty for all bishops and presbyters in 258.
The martyrs of the Decian persecution included a group of soldiers in Alexandria, who chose to join their brothers and sisters in martyrdom:
A band of soldiers, Ammon and Zeno and Ptolemy and Ingenes, and with them an old man, Theophilus, were standing close together before the tribunal. And as a certain person who was being tried as a Christian, seemed inclined to deny, they standing by gnashed their teeth, and made signs with their faces and stretched out their hands, and gestured with their bodies. And when the attention of all was turned to them, before any one else could seize them, they rushed up to the tribunal saying that they were Christians, so that the governor and his council were affrighted. And those who were on trial appeared most courageous in prospect of their sufferings, while their judges trembled. And they went exultingly from the tribunal rejoicing in their testimony; God himself having caused them to triumph gloriously.
(Eusebius, The History of the Church, translated by the Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Book 6, Chapter 41 (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.xi.xli.html). The passage also appears on page 213 of the Penguin Classics edition).
One of many martyrs under Valerian was Fructosius, Bishop of Tarragona. The local governor asked Fructosius if he was a bishop. “Yes, I am” replied Fructosius. “You were” responded the governor, and had him burned alive.
In 257, Cyprian, the Bishop of Carthage, held a Council of bishops from the region (87 attended). The minutes of this Council survive (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0508.htm).
The main point of discussion was whether Christian heretics who joined the Church should be baptised again. The Bishop of Rome said no: any baptism “in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit” was valid, and nobody baptised that way needed to be rebaptised. Cyprian said yes: baptism by heretics was worthless, and converting heretics should therefore be rebaptised. The local bishops agreed with Cyprian, but the position of Rome became the standard position of the Church, and baptism is one of the things that unites the different branches of Christianity:
Baptism constitutes the foundation of communion among all Christians, including those who are not yet in full communion with the Catholic Church: “For men who believe in Christ and have been properly baptized are put in some, though imperfect, communion with the Catholic Church. Justified by faith in Baptism, [they] are incorporated into Christ; they therefore have a right to be called Christians, and with good reason are accepted as brothers by the children of the Catholic Church.”
(Catechism of the Catholic Church 1271: http://www.scborromeo.org/ccc/p2s2c1a1.htm#1271).
This has been the official Roman Catholic position ever since. In 1570, Pope Pius V recognised Calvinist baptism, for example (however, in the 20th Century, Roman Catholic rebaptism of Protestants became routine, though not in the USA).
Although many modern Baptists rebaptise converts from other denominations, most Protestants accept any baptism “in the Name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit.”
Cyprian was martyred in 258, during the persecution of Valerian.
The Third Century saw an increasing number of Christians in the Roman Army. The martyrs of Alexandria have already been mentioned. In about 260, Marinus of Caesaria was martyred. When he was due for promotion, a rival denounced him as a Christian. When he refused to recant, he was executed:
Thereupon the judge, whose name was Achæus, being disturbed, first asked what opinion Marinus held. And when he perceived that he continually confessed himself a Christian, he gave him three hours for reflection. When he came out from the tribunal, Theotecnus, the bishop there, took him aside and conversed with him, and taking his hand led him into the church. And standing with him within, in the sanctuary, he raised his cloak a little, and pointed to the sword that hung by his side; and at the same time he placed before him the Scripture of the divine Gospels, and told him to choose which of the two he wished. And without hesitation he reached forth his right hand, and took the divine Scripture. “Hold fast then,” says Theotecnus to him, “hold fast to God, and strengthened by him mayest thou obtain what thou hast chosen, and go in peace.” Immediately on his return the herald cried out calling him to the tribunal, for the appointed time was already completed. And standing before the tribunal, and manifesting greater zeal for the faith, immediately, as he was, he was led away and finished his course by death.
(Eusebius, The History of the Church, translated by the Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Book 7, Chapter 15 (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.xii.xvi.html). The passage also appears on pages 232–233 of the Penguin Classics edition).
In about 295, Maximillian was one of the first conscientious objectors. As the son of a veteran, he had no choice about enlisting (and at five foot ten, he was good military material). But Maximillian saw military service as incompatible with Christianity, and was executed when he refused to enlist. An interesting aspect of the story is that the recruiting officer tried to persuade him to change his mind by telling him about all the other Christians in the Army.
St Julius the Veteran is another example. He had completed his “twenty,” and served another seven years. Julius had taken part in seven military campaigns, with a perfect record. In 304, he was told to sacrifice to the Roman gods, and was executed when he refused.
The large number of Christians in the Army was to be significant in 312, when Constantine offered his soldiers the chance to fight for the Cross, rather than against it.
St Antony was the founder of the solitary (eremitical) form of Christian monasticism. He was born in 251 in Egypt. In 271, at the age of 20, he heard the Gospel passage “sell what thou hast and give to the poor.” Clement of Alexandria had explained that this was not an injunction on all Christians, but Antony decided that he needed to literally do this, and joined other Christian ascetics who lived in huts on the outskirts of Egyptian towns.
In 286 he decided to live in complete isolation in a deserted mountain fort at Pispir. Regular visitors threw food over the wall, but he refused to see them. Many of these visitors remained in caves and huts near the fort. In 306, Antony decided that, if he could not escape the visitors, he could organise them. The religious community he founded still survives today, in a monastery constructed after his death in 356. William Dalrymple’s wonderful book From the Holy Mountain describes a visit to the monastery:
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Antony’s example inspired many people: by the early Fifth Century, 700 monasteries existed in the deserts of Palestine and Egypt. The Life of St Antony (http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/2811.htm), written immediately after his death by Athanasius, had an enormous impact on many Christians and non-Christians. Augustine, in his Confessions, describes how it influenced his own conversion in the 380s:
On a certain day, then, when Nebridius was away – for some reason I cannot remember – there came to visit Alypius and me at our house one Ponticianus, a fellow countryman of ours from Africa, who held high office in the emperor’s court. What he wanted with us I do not know; but we sat down to talk together, and it chanced that he noticed a book on a game table before us. He took it up, opened it, and, contrary to his expectation, found it to be the apostle Paul, for he imagined that it was one of my wearisome rhetoric textbooks. At this, he looked up at me with a smile and expressed his delight and wonder that he had so unexpectedly found this book and only this one, lying before my eyes; for he was indeed a Christian and a faithful one at that, and often he prostrated himself before thee, our God, in the church in constant daily prayer. When I had told him that I had given much attention to these writings, a conversation followed in which he spoke of Anthony, the Egyptian monk, whose name was in high repute among thy servants, although up to that time not familiar to me. When he learned this, he lingered on the topic, giving us an account of this eminent man, and marveling at our ignorance. We in turn were amazed to hear of thy wonderful works so fully manifested in recent times – almost in our own – occurring in the true faith and the Catholic Church. We all wondered – we, that these things were so great, and he, that we had never heard of them.
From this, his conversation turned to the multitudes in the monasteries and their manners so fragrant to thee, and to the teeming solitudes of the wilderness, of which we knew nothing at all. There was even a monastery at Milan, outside the city’s walls, full of good brothers under the fostering care of Ambrose – and we were ignorant of it. He went on with his story, and we listened intently and in silence.
… Such was the story Ponticianus told. But while he was speaking, thou, O Lord, turned me toward myself, taking me from behind my back, where I had put myself while unwilling to exercise self-scrutiny. And now thou didst set me face to face with myself, that I might see how ugly I was, and how crooked and sordid, bespotted and ulcerous. And I looked and I loathed myself; but whither to fly from myself I could not discover.
(Augustine, Confessions, translated by Albert C. Outler, Book 8, Chapter 6 & 7 (http://www.ccel.org/a/augustine/confessions/). The passage also appears on pages 166-167 of the Penguin Classics edition).
Antony’s impact on Christian monasticism extended as far as Ireland, where the Eighth Century High Cross of Moone in Kildare commemorates his life (based on older Egyptian images):
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The year 270 also marked the death of Plotinus, a non-Christian philosopher worth mentioning. Born in 204 and educated in Alexandria (he shared a teacher with Origen), Plotinus founded the revival of mystical Platonism later called Neoplatonism. Plotinus does not mention Christianity (although he was extremely critical of Gnosticism), but Neoplatonism was to have considerable influence on Christian mysticism in the Middle Ages. Not that Christian mysticism was based on Plotinus—it had purely Christian roots—but Neoplatonism was partly a reaction against Aristotle, and so, in the face of the Aristotelian theology of Thomas Aquinas, Neoplatonism gave Christian mysticism a language and an intellectual respectability that contributed to its growth.
When Augustine, around 420, wrote that the Platonists, of all the non-Christian philosophers, were closest to the Truth, he was referring to the followers of Plotinus. “Christianising” parts of Plotinus was not difficult, since the Alexandrian church had already demonstrated that much of Plato could be incorporated into Christian theology.
The writings of Plotinus (the Enneads) are available online (http://classics.mit.edu/Plotinus/enneads.html) and from Penguin Classics, although they are not precisely an easy read.
In 284, Diocletian became emperor. His first significant action, in 285, was to recognise that he couldn’t run the Empire alone, and to appoint a co-Emperor for the West. The Empire was later to be reunified, but the split eventually became permanent, and this division between the Latin-speaking West and the Greek-speaking East was to be echoed in the structure of the Church.
Diocletian was to launch the most severe persecution of all, beginning with the renewed demand, in 298, that all soldiers sacrifice to the Roman gods, and becoming a reign of terror during the 300’s.
The year 282 also saw the death of Anatolius, the Bishop of Laodicea (in what is now Turkey). Anatolius was a Christian mathematician from Alexandria, who had written a book on mathematics (the Elements of Arithmetic, in 10 parts). Anatolius had applied his mathematical skills to the question of the date of Easter, which had to be calculated in advance, in order to prepare the annual Easter celebrations (which often included the baptism of people who had converted during the preceding year). This calculation was complicated because of the need to align the Jewish system of lunar months with the solar year. The formula that was eventually agreed upon was the first Sunday after the first full moon following the spring equinox. Eusebius quotes Anatolius as saying the following on the subject:
“There is then in the first year the new moon of the first month, which is the beginning of every cycle of nineteen years, on the twenty-sixth day of the Egyptian Phamenoth [which began on the 25th of February]; but according to the months of the Macedonians, the twenty-second day of Dystrus [our March], or, as the Romans would say, the eleventh before the Kalends of April.
On the said twenty-sixth of Phamenoth, the sun is found not only entered on the first segment [of the Zodiac], but already passing through the fourth day in it. They are accustomed to call this segment the first dodecatomorion, and the equinox, and the beginning of months, and the head of the cycle, and the starting-point of the planetary circuit. But they call the one preceding this the last of months, and the twelfth segment, and the final dodecatomorion, and the end of the planetary circuit. Wherefore we maintain that those who place the first month in it, and determine by it the fourteenth of the passover, commit no slight or common blunder.
And this is not an opinion of our own; but it was known to the Jews of old, even before Christ, and was carefully observed by them. This may be learned from what is said by Philo, Josephus, and Musæus; and not only by them, but also by those yet more ancient, the two Agathobuli, surnamed ‘Masters,’ and the famous Aristobulus, who was chosen among the seventy interpreters of the sacred and divine Hebrew Scriptures [the Septuagint] by Ptolemy Philadelphus and his father, and who also dedicated his exegetical books on the law of Moses to the same kings.
These writers, explaining questions in regard to the Exodus, say that all alike should sacrifice the passover offerings after the vernal equinox, in the middle of the first month. But this occurs while the sun is passing through the first segment of the solar, or as some of them have styled it, the zodiacal circle. Aristobulus adds that it is necessary for the feast of the passover, that not only the sun should pass through the equinoctial segment, but the moon also.
For as there are two equinoctial segments, the vernal and the autumnal, directly opposite each other, and as the day of the passover was appointed on the fourteenth of the month, beginning with the evening, the moon will hold a position diametrically opposite the sun, as may be seen in full moons; and the sun will be in the segment of the vernal equinox, and of necessity the moon in that of the autumnal.
I know that many other things have been said by them, some of them probable, and some approaching absolute demonstration, by which they endeavor to prove that it is altogether necessary to keep the passover and the feast of unleavened bread after the equinox. But I refrain from demanding this sort of demonstration for matters from which the veil of the Mosaic law has been removed, so that now at length with uncovered face we continually behold as in a glass Christ and the teachings and sufferings of Christ [II Corinthians 3:15–18], But that with the Hebrews the first month was near the equinox, the teachings also of the Book of Enoch show.”
(Eusebius, The History of the Church, translated by the Rev. Arthur Cushman McGiffert, Book 7, Chapter 32 (http://www.ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf201.iii.xii.xxxiii.html). The passage also appears on pages 252–253 of the Penguin Classics edition).
The US Naval Observatory Astronomical Applications Department makes available an online calculator for future dates of Easter, together with more detailed information on the subject (http://www.usno.navy.mil/USNO/astronomical-applications/astronomical-information-center/date-easter).
In the late Third Century, Armenia was an independent country. Gregory the Illuminator, born in about 257, was a descendant of the Armenian nobility. His father assassinated the King, however, and was killed in response, and so Gregory’s Christian nurse fled with the young boy to Caesaria in Cappadocia. There Gregory was brought up as a Christian. In about 280, Gregory decided to return to Armenia, were at first he was tortured and imprisoned. However, his conduct and witness succeeded in winning over Tiridates, the Armenian king, who became a Christian sometime in the 290s. In 301, the king declared Armenia an officially Christian country, with Gregory as its first Bishop, and a cathedral was built at Etchmiadzin. The current cathedral was rebuilt in 480, and still stands, although it has been extensively renovated and repaired:
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Gregory died in about 330. In 406, Mesrob invented an alphabet for the Armenian language, and over the next few years produced an Armenian translation of the Bible. The Armenian Church (http://www.armenianchurch.org) was the first of several branches of the Church separated by geographical, political, and linguistic boundaries. The other branches were: