The Ionian Rebellion 499 - 494 B.C.
Ionia
Ionia, on the central Western coast of Asia Minor and the adjacent islands was settled by the Greeks about 1000 BC. Between the 8th and 6th centuries BC, the Ionian cities of Miletus, Sámos, Ephesus, led the rest of Greece in trade, colonization, and culture. The region was dominated by Lydia from 550 BC and then by Persian rule after Cyrus the Great's conquest in 546 BC. The Ionian revolt against Persian rule in 499 BC was to last for 6 years and end, not only in defeat for the Ionians but with the enslavement of much of its people, economic ruin, subjugation, and the comparative eclipse of a once thriving culture.
The Ionian cities had been subject to the Persians for almost fifty years with little evidence of dissatisfaction. The Persians had installed their own rulers and set the yearly tribute to 400 talents which was the same as that set by the Lydians. The Ionians even supplied troops to fight in support of several Persian expeditions.
In 498 BC., Aristagoras, the governor of the Ionian city of Miletus had organised a combined Persian/Ionian expedition to capture the island of Naxos which he funded with the help of the Persian Satrap, Artaphrenes and even with the help of Darius himself.
The expedition was however a failure, after 3 months the siege was called off and the defeated Persian and Ionian contingents sailed back to Ionia. Herodutus' story of how the Persian commander in chief, Megabates had forewarned the Naxians is probably one of many that were circulated during the long fruitless siege. With feelings of betrayal, lack of progress, mounting casualities and no spoils to show for their effort, both the Ionians and the Persian troops probably looked to blame the other for their defeat.
Aristagoras, having spent a large part of his own personal fortune and with nothing to show was probably in no hurry to return to Ionia and face Artaphrenes. We do not know of Megabates' fate but can only assume it likely that Aristagoras would have been executed on his return or at least have lost his position of authority at Miletus.
It seems Aristagoras must have been considering his options as the siege dragged on and would have likely began organising a plan even before leaving Naxos. A plan of action that would have a great and lasting effect on the entire region and on history itself. We know he delayed his return voyage as Herodotus tells us the army had already arrived before him and were waiting at Myus, 15km east of Miletus. This could mean a delay of a few days or even weeks. We can assume he used this time waiting for word back from messengers he had previously sent ahead to gather support and advice.
Herodotus tells us how a slave mets Aristagoras on his return from Naxos with a secret message from Histiaeus tattooed on his head, instructing Aristagoras to rebel. This is possibly the message Aristagoras had been waiting for. Histiaeus, the former tyrant of Miletus was living at Susa as a guest of Darius, but does not seem to have not lost his authority or influence.
His return voyage may have been slow but his actions on arrival were not. First, he sends one of his supporters, Iatragoras, to Myus where the army was stationed, with orders to arrest the leaders of Ionian cities of Mylasa, Termera and Mytilene.
Next, Aristagoras' gains the support of the Milesians and Ionians by abdicating his own position and initiating democratic government in the Ionian cities.
Those cities whose leaders had not already been arrested or who were pro Persian were taken by force.
He then appoints his brother Charopinus and a Milesian named Hermophantus as his generals while he then sailed to Greece to gain the support of Sparta and Athens.
Herodotus tends to hint at, rather than state directly the reasons for the Ionian revolt. Aristagoras' own self interest is certainly shown as a key factor but the revolt had the popular support of the Ionians who saw it as a chance of democracy and self rule. This would have also ment the end of the payment of the yearly tribute which many saw as excessive. The Persian failure at Naxos may also have been viewed as a weakness. Their inability to take the city by force showed a weakness in their siege craft and therefore highlighted the strength the Ionians had in their own cities. The Perisan army may also have been soundly beaten at the hands of the defenders and the Ionians may have seen it as an opportune time to revolt. Especially if they unable to appreciate the size of the Persian empire and its ability to quickly muster large numbers of troops when required.
Herodotus could be misleading on the order of the events, it was the revolt of the city of Miletus that marked the beginning of the rebellion rather than the attack on Sardis. While Aristagoras was in mainland Greece trying to win support, Artaphernes had mustered the available Persian forces west of the Halys River and had begun besieging Miletus.
Aristagoras, meanwhile, had been unsuccessful in persuading Sparta but had convinced Athens to provide 20 ships and Eretria 5, in support of the rebellion. When Aristagoras returned to Ionia, Miletus was already under seige and the situation was not looking good for their cause.
However, Aristagoras' response was simple and effective. Assembling his force at Ephesus, Aristagorus' instructed the Greeks to march on Sardis. This was not only an easy target as most of the Persian troops were busy besieging Miletus, but it would also force the Persians to break their siege to come to its rescue. The Greeks easily took the city, dealing a major blow to Persian prestige and forcing Artaphrenes to retreat to the safety of the central stronghold.
The events, however did not go as smoothly as planned. Fire started amongst the reed constructed homes which drove the Lydians and Persians into the center of town, where they made a stand. With the approach of further Persian reinforcements the Greeks had to withdraw leaving the city in flames.
Artaphrenes quickly mustered his Persian forces and caught up with the retreating Greeks at Ephesus. The Greeks apparently offered battle in front of the city walls but were defeated. After which the Athenians abandoned the Ionians and returned home. The battle of Ephesus was a defeat, but the revolt continued. Byzantium and nearby cities, most of Caria (the coastal region south of Lydia) and Cyprus overthrew their Persian garrisons and joined the revolt. In Cyprus, only the city of Amathus (on the southern coast) remained loyal to Persia.
Cyprus was both rich in mineral resources and a key strategic position in the Mediterranean. Both reasons made it vital to Persia, particularly if it wanted naval supremacy in the Aegean. Control of Cyprus meant controlling the movements of both the Phoencian and Egyptian fleets which could be blocked from moving further west.
Darius' was keen to get Cyprus back under his control and organised a large force which assemblied in Cilicia under the command of Artybius. The Persians crossed to Cyprus with the aid of the Phoencian fleet and marched on the city of Salamis. Onesilus and the Cypriot kings deployed their troops on the plain of Salamis to meet the Persians.
The battle resulted with the defeat of the Cypriots and the end of their 'freedom'. Although the Ionians were victorius at sea against the Phonecians, they returned to their homes after hearing of the Persian's victory on land.
After the victory at Ephesus, the Persians continued building their forces while they awaited further news. The Persians seem to have been able to muster a large number of troops as they were able to divide their forces into three separate armies to quickly suppress or defeat a number of Ionian and Carian armies. The Persian armies were under the command of the generals: Daurises, Hymaees and Otanes.
Daurises marched north from Sardis to the settlements on the Hellespont and took the towns of Dardanus, Abydus, Percote, Lampsacus and Paesus in about five days. When hearing that the Carians had joined in the revolt he turned and marched against Caria. The Persians met and defeated a Carian army on the Meander River near Labraunda. Then with the arrival of Milesian reinforcements the Carians again offered battle the following day. Again the Persians were victorious and both the Carians and Milesians sufferred large losses. The Persians army however were to fall into an ambush during a night march and was destroyed and Daurises was killed.
Hymaees initially marched to the Propontis and captured Cius in Mysia then headed to the Hellespont when he heard Daurises had left. There he crushed all the Aeolians in the neighbourhood of Troy but died of disease.
Artaphernes together with Otanes captured Clazomenae in Ionia and Cyme in Aeolis.
With the Ionian towns falling one after another, Aristagoras deserts with his supporters leaving Miletus in the hands of Pythagoras. The loss of their overall commander must have been a severe blow to the rebellion and does niether Aristagoras or the cause any good. He sailed to Thrace where he gained control of the town of Myrcinus but was killed when beseiging a neighbouring Thracian town.
The Persian armies throughout Ionia, Mysia and Caria then combined and marched against Miletus with a large force. The four great naval powers of the Persian empire assembled off the island of Lade, which guarded the harbour of Miltetus. Phoenicia, Cyprus, Cilicia and Egypt supplied a total of 600 ships which faced a surprisingly large Ionian fleet of 353 ships. The battle resulted in the destruction of the Ionian fleet and the end of the rebellion. When the remnants of the fleet reached their towns many choose to leave their homes and seek new homes across the Mediterranean.
After the naval victory, the Persians were free to press the siege of Miletus. It would seem the usual Persian siege technics of digging saps under the walls, the use of rams or building of earth mounds had not been successful or were unable to be used. The Persians who orginally besieged the city at the beginning of the rebellion were only able to take it by force after the destruction of its naval support and the loss of much of its manpower.
The Persians true to their word, killed most of the men and made slaves of the women and children. In 494 BC, the city was burnt and looted and the cultivated land given to leading Persians and the Carians of Pedasus.
The revolt lasted 5 years and resulted in the death of thousands of men, women and children. Miletus, the city in which the rebellion began, was burned, its walls shattered its citizens killed or taken to Persia as slaves.
However, after the failure of the Naxos expedition, the Ionians rebelled.
The Persians also had lost many men and were forced to reconsider the factors which allowed this to happen. Apart from punishing the leaders and towns involved they themselves looked for reasons for its cause.
Measures they took to prevent further dissatisfaction included the review of tribute paid and the installation of democrativ government in many of the cities. The Persians also enforced arbitration in disputes between Greek states which was to stop fighting and piracy between cities.
It would be too easy to blame the lack of unity among Greeks as the reason for their defeat. The Persians had won all of the land battles during the five years of the rebellion through good planning and leadership and the abililty to muster large armies of skilled fighting troops. Their only mentioned defeats were the ambush of Daurises' army during a night march in Caria and the Phoenician naval defeat off Cyprus.
The rebellious spirit of the Greeks did not end here, with Darius infuriated at the Athenians for their involvement in the revolt, the two empires were set to come into conflict again.
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